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THE CONTINENTS 

AND 

THEIR PEOPLE 




EU R.OPE 

CHAMBERLAIN 



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THE CONTINENTS AND THEIR PEOPLE 
EUROPE 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO 
DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



THE CONTINENTS AND THEIR PEOPLE 

EUROPE 

A SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY 

BY 

JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBEELAIN, ED.B., S.B. 

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LOS 

ANGELES, CALIFORNIA; AUTHOR OF HOME AND WORLD 

SERIES OP GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 

AND 

AETHUE HENEY CHAMBEELAIN, B.S., A.M. 

FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, THROOP POLY- 
TECHNIC INSTITUTE, PASADENA, CALIFORNIA 
AUTHOR OF " STANDARDS OF EDUCATION," ETC. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1912 

All rights reserved 



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Copyright, 1912, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1912 



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J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick &. Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S*'A. 



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PREFACE 

The relations between North America and Europe are 
so numerous and so intimate that the study of Europe 
should follow that of our home continent. There should 
be constant comparison as to position, surface, climate, 
and human conditions. This comparison presents a re- 
view and a new view as well. 

More attention should now be given to connecting 
cause and consequence, to map study, and to the use of 
illustrations. It will add interest and profit to the work 
if pupils are given an opportunity to trace the journeys 
which relatives or friends may have made in European 
countries, and to tell something of the geography of the 
countries and cities visited. 

We wish to acknowledge our indebtedness to Mr. 
George Howell and Professor S. Webster French, of 
Pasadena, and Dr. Walter A. Edwards, of the Los 
Angeles High School, for the excellent illustrations fur- 
nished by them. 

THE AUTHORS, 

Pasadena, California, 
December, 1911. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Continent of Europe 1 

11. The British Isles 9 

III. The Metropolis of the World .... 28 

IV. France 36 

V. The French Capital 50 

VI. Belgium . . .60 

VII. The Land of Canals 67 

VIII. The German Empire .83 

IX. The River Rhine 97 

X. Denmark 108 

XL The Land of Fiords 115 

XIL Sweden 128 

XIII. The Empire of the Czars 138 

XIV. Some Russian Cities 146 

XV. Spain . 155 

XVI. Portugal 170 

XVII. Sunny Italy ........ 176 

XVIIL Venice 201 

XIX. Switzerland: the World's Playground . . 209 

XX. Austria-Hungary 226 

XXI. The Balkan Countries 241 



vii 



COLOR MAPS 

FIG. PAGE / 

1. Europe ........ Between 2 and 3 v 

3. British Isles Facing 9/ 

18. Central Europe , . . . " 36 

43. Western Europe . . . . . . . « 83 V 



is 



EUROPE 

CHAPTER I 

THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE 

One summer morning we left our hotel in the 
home of our national government, and walked down 
Pennsylvania Avenue Passing in front of the 
White House, where the President lives, we crossed 
the extensive grounds. To the south the Wash- 
ington Monument towered above the trees to a 
height of more than 500 feet. In the distance wound 
the Potomac River, stretching away past Arlington 
Cemetery and Mount Vernon. We soon left the 
White House behind, and before us rose the massive 
stone building of the State, War, and Navy Depart- 
ments. 

Passing up the steps of this building, we entered a 
room over the door of which was a sign reading, " Pass- 
ports." A clerk at a desk asked our names, ages, and 
residences ; where we were born, our occupations, and 
other questions. After making affidavit that our 
written answers to these questions were correct, we 
were each given an important appearing document. 



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Each paper bore a large government seal, and was 
signed by the Secretary of State. These documents 
were passports, and they cost one dollar each. 

We obtained these passports because we were 
going to travel in foreign countries, and might at 
some time need the help which our government, 
through these papers, could give us. In case of 
sickness, accident, or of difficulty with a private 
citizen or official of any country, passports serve as a 
means of identification. Not every one who leaves 
the United States to travel in other countries secures 
passports. In most countries passports are not re- 
quired, and they are seldom actually needed, but in 
other countries they are necessary. 

From Washington we went by train to New York, 
where we boarded a great Atlantic liner. The dock 
was a very busy place. People were bidding good- 
by to relatives and friends, and baggage was being 
hurried on board. Soon our boat left her dock, and 
entered the bay. On our right lay Ellis Island, 
where the immigrants are landed. A little farther 
on we passed the Statue of Liberty, situated on 
Bedloe's Island. Soon we passed through the 
Narrows and entered the Atlantic Ocean. Slowly 
the lofty buildings of the great city seemed to sink 
below the water, and at last they faded entirely from 
our sight. 




Fig. 



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THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE 3 

Our ship was the Lusitania, 790 feet in length. 
Seven ships of this length, if placed end to end, 
would measure a mile. She carried about 2000 
passengers in addition to a crew of 800 persons. 
Of course much food is required for such a large 
company of people for a single day, and our trip was 




Courtesy of the Cunard Steamship Company. 

Fig. 2. — Lusitania. 



to last for five days. There were on board several 
thousand pounds of meat, in addition to fish, poultry, 
eggs, and game. There were many barrels of potatoes 
and flour, tubs of butter, cans of milk, vegetables, 
fresh fruits, and other provisions. Wagon loads of 
ice were required to keep the food in the very best 
condition. As the ship burns about 1000 tons of 
coal daily, a great quantity of this was placed in the 
hunkers before starting. 

As the Lusitania rushed along over the waters of 
the Atlantic we remembered that more than 400 
years ago Columbus sailed across this same sea in a 



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small ship, for in those days steamships had not been 
invented. For seventy-one days his little vessel, and 
the two others that accompanied it, were tossed by 
wind and wave. Columbus did not know what kind 
of land he would finally reach, nor in fact that he 
would ever reach land, although he hoped to reach Asia. 
His sailors became much alarmed, and begged their 
leader to turn back, but Columbus had faith and 
courage, and at last triumphed. 

On our voyage to Europe, for that was where we 
were going, we saw several vessels bound for America. 
They carried people from different countries of Europe 
who were on their way to the United States, not as 
tourists, but as settlers. About 1,000,000 immigrants 
land in our country yearly. When Columbus dis- 
covered America there were no white inhabitants on 
our continent, and it was people from Europe who 
colonized the land. 

Europe is about as large as the United States, but 
its population is more than four times as great. The 
area of the British Isles is but three times that of the 
state of Ohio, yet they have nearly one half as many 
people as are found in our entire country. Because 
of the dense population in European countries, wages 
are low. Land is so expensive that many of the 
farmers do not own the soil that they till, but rent it 
of landlords. Most of the countries support large 



THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE 5 

armies and navies, and therefore the taxes are high. 
In our country men do not have to join the army 
except in case of war, and not always then. In most 
European countries all able-bodied men, with few 
exceptions, are obliged to serve in the army for a 
certain length of time. These are the important 
reasons why so many Europeans leave their homes to 
settle in the United States. 

The coast line of Europe is very irregular, and 
there are many good harbors. This favors both 
commerce and fishing. There are many peninsulas, 
the most important being Scandinavia, Jutland, the 
Iberian Peninsula, Italy, and the Balkan Peninsula. 
Great seas, gulfs, and bays enter the land. Name and 
locate the most important. These great irregularities 
help to make the climate of the parts of Europe 
near the coast quite mild and uniform. 

The northern part of the continent of Europe is 
largely a plain sloping toward the Atlantic Ocean. 
In the southern part of western Europe there are 
many mountain systems and plateaus, but in Russia 
the plain extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Black 
and the Caspian seas. The Valdai Hills serve as a 
water parting between some of the north and some of 
the south flowing rivers of European Russia. 

Europe has no such great rivers as are found in 
North America, but those that flow across the great 



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plain are navigable, and some of them are of very 
great value. The most important of these is the 
Rhine. Along its banks are many busy German 
cities, and thousands of boats carrying freight and 
passengers go up and down the river yearly. The 
Elbe and the Seine are other rivers of great commer- 
cial value. The longest of the European rivers are 
the Danube and the Volga. As the Volga flows into 
the Caspian Sea, its commercial value is not so great 
as it would be if it flowed into the Atlantic or the 
Mediterranean. 

The prevailing winds are the westerlies, and, as in 
North America, they moderate the temperature of 
the western part of the continent, and bring a plenti- 
ful supply of rain. As we travel eastward, we find 
that the summers are warmer, the winters colder, 
and the climate drier. Europe has no great dry re- 
gions, such as are found both east and west of the 
Rocky Mountains. In Europe there is no great 
mountain system that prevents the westerly winds 
from distributing their moisture over the plain. 
Much of the plain is so far north that the tempera- 
ture is not so high, nor is evaporation so rapid as on 
our western plains. The lowlands along the Medi- 
terranean have a climate much like that of Southern 
California, , and their products are similar. The 
countries along the Mediterranean Sea were the parts 



THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE 7 

of Europe first civilized. There were high civiliza- 
tions in Greece and Italy long before the beginning 
of the Christian Era. In fact, many of the cities 
were very old when America was discovered. In 
those days streets were usually narrow, and often 
crooked, and in many cases they have remained as they 
were laid out. Such narrow streets cannot accommo- 
date street cars, and so much traveling is done in 
carriages and omnibuses. All of these things, and 
many others, are of much interest. 

To the north of Italy the Alps rise like a great wall 
between this country and Switzerland. Some of the 
peaks are so high that they are snow-covered summer 
as well as winter, and many glaciers exist. Before 
the days of railroads, crossing these mountains was 
a tedious undertaking. Several tunnels have been 
dug through them, and thousands of people now visit 
them yearly because of their beautiful scenery. 

There are many mountain systems in Europe, and 
they are in part responsible for the fact that there 
are so many nations. On some of the mountains 
there are great forests. The people have been cut- 
ting the timber for many centuries, and to-day there 
are few European countries that do not import lumber. 
In Germany, Switzerland, and France the forests are 
handled with great care. We have learned much from 
the people of these countries regarding forestry. As 



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in the mountains in our own country, there is mineral 
wealth of various kinds. Water and electric power 
are developed also. 

Although the United States is such a large country, 
and has so many people, we find the same language 
spoken in all parts of it. The Europeans who come 
here to live very soon learn the English language, 
and use it, except in their homes and in gatherings 
of their own people. In Europe there are many 
languages. In England the people speak the lan- 
guage with which we are familiar, but as soon as we 
have crossed the English Channel we find that other 
languages are spoken ; French, German, Dutch, 
Spanish, Italian, Greek, and Russian are some of 
them. In the cities we can always find people who 
can use English. 

There are also great differences between the people 
of the different countries as to dress and customs. 

To most of you, some country in Europe is, in a 
certain sense, the "mother country." Perhaps your 
parents were born in America, but your earlier an- 
cestors came from some foreign country. Americans 
are the descendants of those whom we call foreigners. 
We are all proud of this great country in which we 
live, but we shall be better Americans for having 
studied Europe and her people. 




Fig. 3. 



CHAPTER II 

THE BRITISH ISLES 

Of the thousands of islands that rise above the 
waters of the ocean, the British Isles are by far the 
most important. There are two large islands in the 
group — Great Britain and Ireland — and many 
smaller ones. Although the combined area of these 
islands is less than that of the state of California, 
their population is nearly one half as great as that of 
the United States. 

The land controlled by Great Britain is known as 
the British Empire, the area of which is equal to 
about one fifth of the land surface of the globe. In 
every continent there are portions of this vast empire, 
and in all parts of the ocean there are islands that 
belong to it. 

Long ago what are now the British Isles was a part of 
the mainland of Europe. A sinking of the land gradu- 
ally allowed the waters of the ocean to creep in, cover- 
ing a part of the plain, and converting higher land to the 
west into islands. The Strait of Dover, which in its 
narrowest part is only about twenty miles wide, rolls 
between England and France. Ships are constantly 



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passing between the British Isles and the continent, 
but several hundred years ago the trip was not made 
very frequently. This separation from the mainland 
was a great advantage to the people of the British 
Isles, for they were less disturbed by wars than they 
would otherwise have been. 

Rivers from the mainland of Europe, as well as 
from, the British Isles, carry to the shallow waters of 
the North Sea and the English Channel much material 
which fish use as food. The abundance of fish in 
these waters, as well as the large number of harbors, 
causes fishing to be extensively carried on in Great 
Britain. Aberdeen, Hull, and Great Grimsby are very 
important fishing centers. Locate these places. 

The southern part of the British Isles is several 
hundred miles farther north than New York City, and 
yet there is little cold weather there. This is because 
the westerly winds blow from the ocean, which is 
never very cold, to the land. As the ocean is cooler 
than the land during the summer, the winds prevent 
the land from becoming very warm. When the early 
English settlers came to America they suffered a great 
deal because the winters were much colder than in 
England. 

When the moisture-laden westerly winds strike 
the mountains in the British Isles, they leave an 
abundance of rain upon the western slope. This 



THE BRITISH ISLES 11 

amounts yi places to more than 100 inches per year. 
Because of this, forests were extensive in early times, 
but they have been largely cut down. The plentiful 
supply of rain favors meadows and pastures, and many 
cattle are raised, especially in Ireland. On the east- 
ern slope the rainfall is much lighter than on the 
western, being in some places less than twenty inches 
yearly. 

Much of the land in Great Britain is too mountain- 
ous for agriculture, while in Ireland there is a great 
deal of boggy land. These conditions, as well as the 
dense population, make agriculture on a large scale 
impossible. Because of this, and because manufactur- 
ing is more profitable than farming, the inhabitants 
of the British Isles depend upon other people for much 
of their food. Corn, which in the United States is 
the most valuable crop, cannot be grown, because the 
summer weather is not warm enough. The cool, 
moist climate of Scotland and Ireland favors the 
growing of oats on the lowlands. Wheat, potatoes, 
meat, eggs, poultry, butter, cheese,, rice, tea, coffee, 
and fruits are imported in great quantities. If for a 
single month food from other lands were not shipped 
to the British Isles, the people would suffer. 

The great wealth of these islands consists in coal, of 
which there is a tremendous supply. Our country is 
the only one in which more coal is mined than in 



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Great Britain. There is also much iron, and some 
tin and copper. The coal is used in operating mills and 
factories, where goods of all kinds are manufactured, 
and a great deal is exported. Because coal is so heavy, 
most of the raw materials used in manufacturing can 
be carried to the coal fields more cheaply than the 
coal can be taken to them. Besides, if the people of 
the British Isles do the manufacturing, the raw prod- 
ucts must be taken there; for most of them, if produced 
in these islands at all, are produced in small quan- 
tities. 

We find, therefore, that the great industrial centers 
are close to the coal and iron deposits. All kinds of 
metal goods, from needles and pins to locomotives, are 
manufactured in the British Isles, and sold in all parts 
of the world. You remember that our country is the 
greatest cotton producer in the world. Much American 
cotton lands at Liverpool. From here it is shipped to 
Manchester and other cities in the same locality, where 
it is made into cotton goods. Woolen goods are made 
at Leeds and Bradford, and silk goods at Paisley. Ire- 
land produces considerable flax, and this is made into 
linen cloth, and into handkerchiefs and laces at Dub- 
lin. So great and constant is the demand for manu- 
factured goods in nearly all parts' of the world, that 
some of the mills and factories are operated day and 
night. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 13 

In order to secure the raw products, as well as 
to carry the manufactured goods of the British Isles 
to other lands, a large number of ships are needed. 
There is also a powerful navy to protect the com- 
merce and the colonies in all parts of the world. 

Many thousands of Americans visit the British 
Isles every year. A very large number of these 
land at Liverpool because that city faces our eastern 
coast. In the harbor there are ships from all parts 
of the globe. Some are freight ships loading or 
unloading merchandise, and some are passenger 
vessels. Both railroads and a canal connect Liver- 
pool with Manchester, about thirty-five miles dis- 
tant. On the south side of the Mersey stands Bir- 
kenhead. Tunnels which have been dug under the 
river connect the two places. 

Let us imagine ourselves landing at the great 
port of Liverpool. Before leaving the ship we ex- 
change some of our American money for English 
money. At first it bothers us a little to know just 
what we are to pay for things, but we soon become 
accustomed to the system. A pound is equal to 
about ^Ye dollars of our money ; a shilling to twenty- 
five cents ; a sixpence to twelve cents ; a penny to 
two cents. 

A short distance southeast of Liverpool is the 
ancient town of Chester, established by the Romans. 



14 



EUBOPE 




THE BRITISH ISLES 



15 



The city is situated upon the River Dee. In early 
times the river was more navigable than it is now, 




Fig. 5. — An English cottage with a thatched roof. 

for the removal of the forests has caused the stream 
to deposit much silt in the channel. A part of the 
old wall which once surrounded the city remains, 
and we may walk for some distance upon it and 



16 EUROPE 

obtain a good view of the surrounding country. We 
notice that in some cases there are sidewalks in front 
of the second story as well as the ground floor of 
stores. There are stairways at the ends of the blocks 
so that people may go up and down. 

The southcentral part of England is a beautiful 
country. There are fertile farms, green meadows 
and pastures, and parklike areas with wide-spreading 
trees. The country roads are almost as smooth as 
city streets, and well-trimmed hedges border juany 
of them. Some of the farmhouses have thatched 
roofs instead of shingled roofs. In this beautiful 
country, situated upon the Avon River, is Stratford, the 
home of Shakespeare. The town is small and quiet. 
The names of some of the hotels or inns would in- 
terest you. There is a sign which says " Red Horse 
Inn"; "Golden Lion," "Red Lion," and "Black 
Swan" are the names of other inns. 

Shakespeare's early home is still standing. We 
enter the room where the great writer was born, and 
we see the desk at which he sat when at school. 
It is tall and rough, and quite unlike the school 
desks now in use. Many of the articles of furniture 
used by the family have been preserved. A path 
overarched by magnificent trees leads from the 
street to the old church in which Shakespeare was 
buried. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



17 



Only a few miles from Stratford is the ruined 
castle of Kenilworth. It was built of red sandstone, 
and had several great towers. A part of the ditch or 
moat that once surrounded the castle may be seen. 




Fig. 6. — Birthplace of Shakespeare. 



The town of Warwick is situated in this same 
beautiful part of England. It is a very interesting 
place, and a part of the city wall and one of the 
gates remain. Through this gate electric cars now 
run. An extensive forest, in which the deer and 
other animals were hunted, once covered all of this 
section. There is a little hotel in the town which 
was built in 1380, over 100 years before Columbus 



18 



EUBOPE 



discovered America. About 300 years ago several 
people in the town gave sums of money which were 
to be used as a fund in furnishing bread to the poor. 
The practice is still followed. Every Saturday night 



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Fig. 7. — A bit of the ruined castle of Kenilworth. 



loaves of bread are placed upon shelves in St. Mary's 
Church. They are marked with the names of the 
men who gave the money so many years ago. 

In this town there is a very old castle, but unlike 
Kenilworth it is still occupied. It is called Warwick 
Castle. It is situated upon the bank of the Avon 
River, and is surrounded by a high stone wall. 



20 EUROPE 

Just outside of the wall is a mill where grain used 
to be ground. Great towers with very narrow 
windows rise from the corners of the castle. In the 
moat, which was once filled with water, ferns and 
other plants are now growing. We cross the little 
bridge and enter the gate. Above our heads is the 
portcullis, a gate of iron which could be lowered to 
keep out an enemy. A road cut in solid rock winds 
into the grounds. Over this road warriors clad in 
armor have ridden many times. 

We pay a fee of two shillings and are admitted to 
the castle. In one room there is furniture centuries 
old. Among other pieces is a beautiful table that 
stood in a house on the Grand Canal in Venice in 
1490. In another room we see armor, helmets, spears, 
axes, swords, crossbows, and other things used hun- 
dreds of years ago. The " Cedar Room " is made 
from red cedar that came from trees on the estate. 
In this room are many noted paintings. 

To the north of England is Scotland, a very moun- 
tainous country. The Grampian Mountains spread 
over much of the central part, and this section is 
known as the Scottish Highlands. The highest peak, 
Ben Nevis, 4406 feet in altitude, is the most lofty 
mountain in the British Isles. This peak is not snow 
covered in summer, but in sheltered spots on its slopes 
there are banks of snow at all times of the year. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



21 



So rugged is the surface of Scotland that less than 
one thn-d of it can be tilled. The highlands are there- 
fore sparsely populated. The absence of coal is an- 
other reason why the highlands have comparatively 
few people. 
Upon the hills 
and mountains 
many sheep 
are pastured, 
but much of 
the beauti- 
ful mountain 
country, with 
its streams and 
lakes is rented 
to wealthy 
men. During the summer it serves as a fishing and 
hunting ground for these people. 

As it was difficult to build roads in the highlands, 
the people in early days were divided into many 
groups, known as clans. This same difficulty explains 
why the inhabitants of the highlands have not pro- 
gressed as rapidly as have the people on the lowlands. 
In many of the homes candles are still in use. 

East of the Grampian Hills there is a coastal 
plain, and here the population is dense. Aberdeen, 
sometimes called the " Granite City," is situated upon 




Fig. 



Photo, by Edwards. 

— Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine. 



22 EUROPE 

the coast at the mouth of the Dee. Many of the 
buildings are constructed of granite quarried in the 
vicinity. You have already learned that Aberdeen 
is an important fishing center. 

South of Aberdeen, on the north shore of the Firth 
of Tay, is Dundee. This is the largest city in north- 
ern Scotland, and textiles are manufactured very 
extensively. It is also a fishing center. 

The lowlands, which extend from the Firth of 
Forth to the Firth of Clyde, are rich in coal and iron. 
Therefore much manufacturing is carried on, and 
there are large cities and a dense population. Edin- 
burgh guards the entrance to the lowlands, and there- 
fore became the capital of the country. It is not a 
manufacturing center and is not a seaport, being 
situated a few miles from the coast. It has a noted 
university. 

Near the w^estern end of the lowlands on the Clyde 
is the city of Glasgow. The river has been deepened 
so that large ships reach the city. As there is much 
iron and coal in the vicinity, a great deal of manufac- 
turing is carried on. Many steel ships are built, and 
iron and steel goods, as well as textiles, are manufac- 
tured. As there is much agriculture carried on upon 
the lowlands, this adds to the importance of the city. 
Glasgow is the second city in population in the 
British Isles. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



23 



About thirty miles from Glasgow is Stirling, one 
of the most ancient cities of Scotland. Its position 
at the head of navigation on the Forth made ifc the 



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photo, hy French. 

Fig. 10. — Soldiers at Stirling Castle, Scotland. 

natural key to Scotland. The weather-beaten towers 
of Stirling Castle rise from a hill, and overlook a 
beautiful country. In this castle kings have been 
born, and it has sheltered many brave Scottish leaders, 
Wallace among others. The uniform of the soldiers 
who guard the castle and the city to-day is quite 
different from that worn by soldiers in our country. 
The coastal plain which lies between the Cheviot 



24 



EUROPE 



Hills and the North Sea is only a few miles wide. 
This has always served as a gateway between England 
and Scotland, and here some important battles between 
the English and the Scotch were fought. To-day a 
railroad extends along the coastal plain. 




Fig. 11. — A castle in Wales. 

Wales, a very mountainous country, stretches be- 
tween the southern coast of the Irish Sea and Bris- 
tol Channel. Opposite Dublin, on Anglesey Island, 
is Holyhead. A railroad crosses the narrow strait 
that separates this island from the mainland. 

In the southern part of Wales much coal is mined, 
and Cardiff is a great coal exporting center. Be- 
cause of the rugged character of Wales the people 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



25 



have not changed their language and customs as 
rapidly as they otherwise would. 

Ireland is known as the "Emerald Isle," because 
so much of the island is green. This condition is 





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Photo, hy French, 



Fig. 12. — A donkey cart in southern Ireland. 

due to the abundant rainfall. Low mountains ex- 
tend around the border of Ireland, but much of the 
interior is so low and flat that water does not drain 
off readily. On this account there are many marshes 
known as hogs. 

Until they are drained, the bogs cannot be used 
for agriculture, but they furnish large quantities 



26 



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Photo, by Howell. 

Fig. 13. — Cathedral at Queeiistown, Ireland. 



THE BBtTISS ISLES 27 

of a substance called peat. This is formed bj the 
accumulation of vegetable material in the bogs. 
The water prevents the decay of the vegetation, 
which forms a sort of spongy mass. This is dug 
out in blocks, dried, and used as fuel. As there is 
little coal in Ireland, the peat is of great value to 
the people. 

Cities and towns are not numerous in Ireland as 
they are in England. Where the land is not too 
swampy it is devoted to farming and to stock rais- 
ing. Cattle, sheep, and horses are raised in great 
numbers, and meat and dairy products are exported. 
Oats, barley, potatoes, and flax are important crops. 
Much flax is grown in the country around Belfast, 
and linen goods of all kinds are manufactured ex- 
tensively in that city. Some of these goods are 
exported to our country. 

Great numbers of Irish people have made their 
homes in the United States. They have helped to 
build our cities and develop our country. This 
gives us a particular interest in the Emerald Isle. 



CHAPTER III 

THE METROPOLIS OF THE WORLD 

The Hudson is a small, but a very important 
river. At its mouth is situated the largest city in 
the New World. Here may be seen ships from all 
parts of the earth, loading and unloading goods. 
A very large part of our commerce passes through 
New York — for, as you have learned, the Hudson- 
Mohawk Yalley is the easiest route from the Atlantic 
Coastal Plain to the interior of the United States. 

The Thames, also, is a small river, but near its 
mouth is situated London, the metropolis of the 
world. In this one city there are as many people 
as there are in the United States west of the Rocky 
Mountains. About a half million people, whose 
homes are outside of London, enter and leave the 
city daily. This has made it necessary to have 
excellent means of transportation between London 
and near-by cities and towns. 

The basin of the Thames is the best agricultural 
district in England, for here we find the largest plain. 
The climate is mild, there is enough rainfall, and 

28 



THE METROPOLIS OF TEE WORLD 



29 



the soil is fertile. This basin furnishes much food 
to the people of London. 

The mouth of the Thames is close to the main- 
land of Europe, and therefore the river and the 



•'■i i Its I'lf^f, 




Fig. 14. 



London Bridge. 

valley have for many centuries been an important 
route of travel. Long ago there were extensive 
marshes along the lower course of the stream, and 
people traveling up the valley by land could not 
cross the river until they reached the spot where 
London now stands. The settlement established at 
this fording place has become the largest city on earth. 
The Thames, which is here 900 feet wide, is now 
crossed by about twenty bridges. The most famous 



30 EUROPE 

of these is the London Bridge, and there is only 
one. Tower Bridge, that is nearer the sea. Over 
these bridges a stream of people and vehicles of all 
kinds pour both night and day. 

London was a very old city hundreds of years be- 
fore America was discovered. As it has spread out, 
many other cities have been added to it. Because of 
this, the city has not been built according to any plan. 
If all of the streets in London were placed end to end, 
they would reach nearly around the world at the 
equator. You can easily imagine that in such a large 
city most of the names for streets have been exhausted. 
On this account some names are used many times. 
The same street may have different names in different 
parts of London, because it was once a road connect- 
ing two or more cities or towns. Some of the streets 
are very narrow. 

In a city having such a large population, and doing 
so much business, the streets in the business sections 
are crowded. In the middle of the day it would be 
almost impossible to cross some of the streets if it 
were not for the police. When the officer at a cross- 
ing holds up his hand, the teams or the foot-passen- 
gers stop as he directs. 

You do not see electric cars or street cars of any 
kind very commonly, for the city was old and its 
streets crowded before street cars came into use. To 



THE METROPOLIS OF THE WORLD 



31 



lay tracks in the streets would block traffic, and most 
of the streets are too narrow to make the use of cars 
an advantage. 
There are some 
surface cars, how- 
ever, and both 
elevated and un- 
derground lines. 
The subways the 
people of London 
call 'Uubes." 
This is because 
the trains really 
run in great tubes 
many feet below 
the level of the 
streets. The 
tubes are entered 
by going down 
an elevator. 

London has a 
large number of 
omnibuses. Some 

are drawn by horses, but auto-buses are rapidly tak- 
ing the place of these. Most of them have two 
stories, and passengers reach the upper deck by 
means of a narrow stairway leading from the plat- 





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1 ; 


mSk 


fs 


^%i^KP&:^.. 




W' ', 




^L^ 


^'^m 




Hnii ^^^1 


m 


SmI -^^^ffll 



Fig. 15. — A crowded street in London. 



32 



EUROPE 



form at the rear of the bus. The fare is usually one, 
two, or three pence, according to the distance traveled. 





1 






^ga^ 






Fig. 16. — Westminster Abbey. 

There is a tremendous amount of smoke hanging 
over the city, and there are also very many dense 
fogs. Sometimes these last several days. At such 
times it is difficult to get about in the streets, and 
lights must be used in the buildings day as well as 
night. 

There are some very interesting buildings in the 
English capital. Among these is St. Paul's. The 
dome of this great church is 365 feet above the street, 



THE METROPOLIS OF THE WORLD 33 

and in it is the largest bell in the city. Its walls are 
blackened by the soot which for centuries has collected 
upon them. Westminster Abbey is much more 
beautiful, although parts of it are nearly 900 years 
old. Here many of the greatest English characters 
have been buried. The visitor may spend a peaceful 
hour in this quiet place, thinking of the lives of those 
who are here honored, or in listening to a service. 

The east side of London, like the east side of New 
York, is the home of thousands of the very poor. 
Through the narrow, dirty streets one would not care 
to travel without the guidance and protection of a 
policeman. 

On the east side is found one of the most interest- 
ing buildings in London, the Tower. This building 
was erected by William the Conqueror nearly 900 
years ago. It has several towers and such thick stone 
walls that it seems as though it might endure for- 
ever. The Thames flows on one side, while in former 
times a deep moat protected it on the others. In the 
rooms of this gloomy old building there are many 
things that tell of the past history of England. One 
of the exhibits that always attracts a crowd consists 
of the almost priceless crown jewels. These are dis- 
played in glass cases fully protected by iron cages. 

When you use a map to find the longitude of a 
place you observe that it is usually given as being so 



34 



EUROPE 



many degrees west or east from Greenwich. Green- 
wich is beyond the east side of London. Here there 
is an observatory where men with telescopes study the 
heavens. The meridian npon which this observatory 




Fig. 17. 



Photo, by EdiCards. 

Big Ben, Parliament Building, London. 



is situated is 'marked 0°. Places west of this are in west 
longitude, and places east of it are in east longitude. 
Along the river Thames are the great Parliament 
Buildino's. Here the men who make the laws for 



II 

THE METROPOLIS OF THE WORLD B5 

Great Britain meet, just as our congressmen and 
senators meet in Washington. This is also the center 
of government for the British Empire. The buildings 
have a frontage of more than one sixth of a mile 
along the Thames and they cover eight acres. The 
Great Clock Tower is 40 feet square and 320 feet 
high. In it is an immense clock, and a bell, known 
as " Big Ben," upon which the hours are struck. 
The bell in St. Paul's is the only one in London 
larger than this. We can scarcely realize as we look 
at the dial of the great clock that its minute hand is 
twelve feet in length. The Victoria, another tower 
on the Parliament Buildings, is larger and higher 
than the Clock Tower. 

As London is the largest city in the world, it has 
an immense commerce. Ships from all parts of the 
British Empire, as well as from all parts of the world, 
carry loads of provisions and other materials to Lon- 
don. Wheat, flour, rice, meat, butter, sugar, tea, 
coffee, fruits, and lumber are some of these. 



CHAPTER IV 



FRANCE 



Although Great Britain and France are so close 
together, they dii^er in many ways. France has a 
more extensive plain, loftier mountains, longer rivers, 
and larger forests than has Great Britain. The sum- 
mers in France are warmer than in the British Isles, 
and therefore France produces some crops that cannot 
be grown in these islands. The people of the two 
countries differ in language, in government, in dis- 
position, and in social customs. 

The map shows you that the highlands of France 
are in the central and southeastern parts. In the 
south the Pyrenees lift themselves like a wall be- 
tween France and Spain, making trade and travel 
more difficult than they would otherwise be. No 
railroads have been built across these mountains, al- 
though there is one around either end of the system. 

Ages ago volcanoes poured out their floods of lava 
upon what is now the Central Plateau. Some of 
these ancient volcanic mountains still remain, al- 
though they have long been inactive. The rivers 

36 




10° Longitude 



Fig. 43. 



FRANCE 37 

which drain the great plain rise upon this plateau, 
and their upper courses are therefore rapid. The 
soil of the plateau is not very fertile, and except 
where there are minerals, the population is not dense. 
Near St. Etienne (san-ta-te-en') there are coal deposits, 
and so manufacturing is carried on. At Limoges (le- 
mozh') much china and pottery are made because of 
the very pure clay found near by. 

As the great plain is well watered, much agricul- 
ture is carried on. Nearly one half of the inhabit- 
ants of France are engaged in tilling the soil. A 
great deal of wheat is grown, but not enough to sup- 
ply the home demand, and so wheat is imported. 
Barley, rye, oats, corn, flax, and potatoes are grown, 
and sugar beets are produced extensively. 

You would be very much interested in seeing the 
French farmers till their fields and harvest their crops. 
There are as many farms as there are in the United 
States, and therefore most of them are small. Be- 
cause of this, little farming machinery is used in some 
sections. Grain is sown by hand, and cut by means 
of sickles. Women and girls, as well as men, may 
be seen raking the hay and grain with long-handled 
rakes. Instead of threshing machines, flails are some- 
times used. A flail consists of two sticks tied together 
at one end by means of a leather string. The worker 
holds one of these sticks and swings the other over 



38 EUROPE 

his head. As this stick pounds the grain, the kernels 
are beaten out of their husks. On the larger farms 
machinery such as we use is employed. 

The rivers which drain the plain are navigable for 
long distances. A good many canals have been dug 
connecting the various rivers, and some of these ca- 
nals are still in use. In early times roads followed 
the rivers, just as railroads do to-day. 

Central and southern France have many vineyards, 
and much wine is produced. Bordeaux (bor-do') is 
an important wine exporting city. In this same sec- 
tion many prunes are grown, some of which are 
shipped to our country. 

The southern part of France has a mild climate. 
It faces the warm waters of the Mediterranean, and 
the mountains cut off the cold winds which some- 
times blow from the north. This sunny, southern 
slope, especially east of the mouth of the Rhone, 
is a noted winter resort. The cold winds which 
often sweep down the valley of the Rhone cannot 
reach this section. Oranges, lemons, and olives are 
grown, and olives and olive oil are exported. Near 
Nice, orange blossoms and many kinds of flowers are 
used in the manufacture of perfume. 

The Rhone, like the Mississippi, has built up a 
marshy delta which does not offer a good location 
for a city. On a bay a little to the east of the river's 



FRANCE 



39 




40 EUROPE 

mouth, a city was established more than 2000 years 
ago, and here is located the present city of Marseilles 
(mar-sal') . Marseilles is the chief Mediterranean 





Photo, ly Hoivell. 

Fig. 20. — A public laundry in Nice. 



port of France. It has a fine harbor, and carries on 
much cpmmerce with northern Africa, Asia, and the 
Americas. 

In the warmer portions of the country many mul- 
berry trees are grown. Upon the leaves of these the 
silkworms feed. The people pick the leaves of the 
mulberry trees, wash and dry them, cut them into 
pieces, and then place them before the worms. The 
worms are of various sizes, the full grown ones being 
about two inches long, and cream-white in color. 
They are kept upon trays standing one above another 



FRANCE 



41 




42 EUROPE 

upon shelves in clean rooms, the temperature of which 
remains practically uniform. 

When the silkworms are about one month old they 
begin spinning their cocoons. These are made of silk 
which comes from a tiny opening in the head of the 
creature. When in the body of the worm, the silk is 
in the form of a jelly, but on coming in contact with 
the air it hardens. The cocoon is spun about the 
body of the worm, thus making it a prisoner. How 
wonderful it is that these little creatures are able to 
transform the leaves of the mulberry tree into the 
material from which beautiful dresses, ribbons, and 
other articles are made. If the cocoons are kept warm 
enough for two or three weeks, a moth will come from 
each. The moths are about the color of cream, and 
have brown bands upon their wings. The moths lay 
the eggs from which the silkworms hatch. 

In many of the cottages in southeastern France 
silkworms are raised. The work is light and 
pleasant, and women and girls do a great deal of it. 
As the threads of which the cocoons are made are 
very fine, several are twisted together as they are 
unwound. Silk in this form is called raw silk. 

A little north of the mouth of the Rhone, the 
Durance enters from the east. Here is located 
Avignon (a-ven-yon') another of the old cities of 
France. Its streets are narrow and crooked, and as 



FRANCE 



43 



you see in the picture, the city is walled. The walls 
were built about 600 years ago. A very fertile 




Fig. 22. — City Walls, Avignon, 



Photo, hy Howell. 



country surrounds Avignon. There are olive, orange, 
and lemon groves, vineyards and gardens. 

A great deal of the silk produced in France is 
manufactured into cloth and ribbons at Lyons. This 
city is situated where the Saone joins the Rhone. 
It is close to coal fields, and has water power. The 
raw silk is wound on spools, and the silk from two or 
more spools twisted together. Two sets of threads 
are then woven into cloth. Silk goods form one of 
the important exports of France. 

The valley of the Rhone leads northward from the 
Mediterranean and then eastward into Switzerland. 
For ages people have followed this valley in traveling 



44 EUROPE 

to and fro J and to-day a railroad follows it. Just 
south of where the river enters France from Switzer- 
land, Mount Blanc lifts its snow-white head about 
15,000 feet above the sea. From the mountain, 
glaciers descend to the valley of Chamonix, which is 
visited by a very large number of people every 




Photo, hy Howell. 

Fig. 23, — A park in Lyons. 

summer. Towns and the homes of peasants dot the 
valley. If you climb the wooded slopes of the moun- 
tains, you will hear the tinkle of the bells worn by 
cows, sheep, and goats, for during the summer they 
pasture upon the mountain sides. Many streams, 
born in the snow fields, or under the cold white 
glaciers, come dashing down to the valley. Some of 
these furnish the power used in manufacturing, in 
running trains, and in lighting the houses. 



FRANCE 45 

Along the southeastern coast is an interesting strip 
of country known as the Landes. A part of the area 
is marshy, and a part is very sandy. The winds 
heap up the grains of sand into hills and ridges, just 
as they pile up snow in the colder parts of the 
world. These dunes, as they are called, are continu- 
ally being moved by the winds just as snowdrifts 
are. The more gentle slope of the dunes is al- 
ways toward the direction from which the wind 
blows. 

As the dunes march inland they cover the land, 
bury bushes and trees, and they have even destroyed 
a number of villages. Many years ago the French 
people began planting grass and trees upon the dmies 
in order that their roots might bind together the sand 
grains. There are now quite extensive forests found 
in this section, and from them lumber, turpentine, and 
resin are obtained. 

The peninsula of Brittany is one of the most inter- 
esting parts of Europe. Like our New England it 
has a rugged coast and many excellent harbors. 
Fishing is the chief occupation of the people who live 
near the shore. Herring, sardines, mackerel, anchovy, 
and tunny are caught in great numbers. Oyster 
fishing is also carried on extensively, and many 
lobsters are caught. In addition to the fishing carried 
on along the shore, a large number of vessels go to 



46 



EUROPE 



the fishing grounds near Iceland, and even to New- 
foundland. 

The men of Brittany are good seamen. As a result 
they furnish sailors for other parts of France, as well 
as men for the navy. About one fifth of all the sea- 



_^. -mmi 


^pxafe 








> ■' 








i 



Fig. 24. 



Copyright by Brown Bros. 

A market scene in Brittany. 



men in France come from Brittany. So many men 
are employed upon the sea that much of the farming 
is done by the women. 

The homes of the poorer farmers are small, and 
contain little furniture. They are usually built of 
stone, for stone is abundant, and wood is scarce. 



FRANCE 



47 



The roof is steep, and generally thatched, and the 
floor is of dirt. At one side of the living room is a 
large fireplace. In the yard we shall probably find a 
great oven built of blocks of stone reaching higher 
than a man's head. The water is obtained from a 
well. 

Let us notice the dress of the people. The men 
usually wear jackets of coarse material, loose trousers, 




Fig. 25. — A scene in Corsica. 



Photo, by Howell. 



wooden shoes, and flat caps of wool or felt. When 
they " dress up," they wear velvet jackets with large 
buttons, and low hats with wide rims, from the back 
of which hang long ribbons. The women wear short 
skirts, loose waists, broad white collars, aprons, and 
caps some of which have lace upon them. They, too, 
wear wooden shoes. 



48 



EUROPE 



We find that there are many thousands of the 
Bretons who cannot speak French. As the country 
is set apart from the main lines of travel, and is 
rather rough, the people have changed very slowly. 
They are generally very superstitious. There are 
many old churches in Brittany, and stone monuments 




Fig. 26. — Drying nets, Ajaccio. 



Photo, by Howell. 



still more ancient. These are some of the things 
that attract travelers to this land. 

The island of Corsica is situated about 100 miles 
from the southeastern coast of France, and is one of 
the French possessions. It is a very mountainous 
island, some of the peaks being snow covered for a 
large part of the year. In the fertile valleys, and 
upon the lower slopes, oranges, figs, olives, grapes. 



FRANCE 49 

almonds, and chestnuts are grown. In Corsica the 
chestnut is a common article of food. In the town 
of Ajaccio (a-yat'cho), on the west coast, Napoleon 
was born. Considerable fishing is carried on here 
and at other towns on the coast. 



CHAPTER Y 



THE FRENCH CAPITAL 



The Seine drains a large area that is quite level 
and very fertile. This region has a plentiful supply 
of rainfall, and for these reasons it is a rich agricul- 
tural section. Wheat, rye, oats, corn, potatoes, and 
flax are grown in large quantities. The river is 
navigable for about 350 miles and is connected with 
the Rhine, Rhone, and Loire (Iwar) by means of 
canals. As its valley is a natural highway across 
France it has been a route of travel for hundreds of 
years. It is therefore quite natural that the French 
capital should be situated on the Seine. 

The mouth of the Seine is not far from England, 
and hence much of the commerce between the two 
countries passes up and down the valley. Havre 
(av'r), meaning the harbor, is at the mouth of the 
river. It carries on much trade with the Americas. 
Here are unloaded cotton, wheat, meats, and lumber 
from the United States, fruits from Central America, 
coffee and rubber from Brazil, and wool from Argentine 
Republic. As the water is not deep enough to enable 

50 



THE FRENCH CAPITAL 



51 



the largest ships to ascend the river, they load and 
unload at Havre. 









i ■ ■ 




fl^^B 



Fig. 27. — Horses drawing blocks of stone in Rouen., 

Some distance up the river is the ancient city of 
Rouen, which was founded by the Romans. Here 
much American cotton is made into cloth. As we 
travel about the city we observe that many of the 
streets are narrow and crooked. There are old ca- 



52 EUROPE 

thedrals with curious forms of ornamentation known 
as gargoyles. We see many fine horses in the streets. 
They are often hitched tandem, sometimes four or 
five in a team. 

Following the river, we at length reach Paris, 
which is situated about 100 miles from its mouth. 
So level is the plain that Paris is less than 100 feet 
above the sea. The Marne joins the Seine a short 
distance from the capital. 

Just where the capital is situated there are islands 
in the Seine, and upon one of these the foundations 
of the city were laid hundreds of years ago. Of 
course the Paris of to-day extends for miles on both 
sides of the river. 

The Seine sweeps through the city in a broad 
curve. It is crossed by about 30 bridges, some of 
which are very beautiful. Occasionally floods occur, 
doing much damage in the parts of the city near the 
river. 

The French capital is noted as a manufacturing 
center. This is partly because there is an extensive 
coal field not far away. The city is also a center of 
art, music, science, and fashion. It is a beautiful 
city and attracts people from all parts of the world. 
This single city has a larger population than the en- 
tire state of California or Texas, each of which has 
a greater area than France. 



THE FRENCH CAPITAL 



53 



The valley of the Seine is quite densely populated, 
and so there is a good demand for manufactured arti- 
cles at home as well as abroad. Cotton, woolen, linen, 
and silk goods are manufactured in large quantities. 
In addition furniture, carpets, tapestries, shoes, hats, 




Fig. 28. — Louvre, Paris. 

jewelry, and novelties of all kinds are made. About 
one fourth of all of the manufacturing done in France 
takes place in the capital. 

Paris is one of the world's great art centers, and it 
is visited by artists from all parts of the globe who 
go there to study. The Louvre (loovr) is the most 



54 EUROPE 

noted gallery. Here are paintings and pieces of 
sculpture done by the masters in many lands. It is 
a museum as well as a gallery, and many objects of 
great value are displayed there. Here we may see a 
sword which once belonged to Napoleon. It has dia- 
monds set in the handle, and is valued at $400,000. 

There are many beautiful streets in Paris. Twelve 
radiate from the Arch of Triumph. This wonderful 
arch stands upon a low hill, and is therefore visible 
from most parts of the city. It was erected in honor 
of the victories of Napoleon, and was finished in 
1836. 

The Place de la Concorde or " The Place of Peace " 
is interesting and beautiful. It is an open place in 
which there are monuments, fountains, and statues. 
On one side the Seine sweeps along on its way to the 
sea. In the opposite direction is the Garden of the 
Tuileries. On a third side is the beautiful boulevard 
Champs Elysees, while to the north rises the marble 
Church of the Madeleine. In the center of the Place 
de la Concorde is a great monument known as the 
Obelisk of Luxor. This is a single piece of granite 
76 feet in height. It was cut out and set up in Egypt 
about 4000 years ago. 

The Madeleine is not at all like a church in appear- 
ance. It has no domes or spires and no windows in 
its walls. It is raised above the general level, and is 



THE FBENCH CAPITAL 



55 



reached by a flight of steps. On all sides are graceful 
raarble columns. When we enter we find that the 
only light comes from above. 




Fig. 29. — Pantheon, Paris. 



Photo, by Edwards. 



One of the sights of the city is the Eiffel Tower. 
This is a great framework of steel rising from four 
corners, and growing smaller as the altitude increases. 



56 EUROPE 

By means of elevators people ascend the tower and 
obtain a splendid view of the city. 

Paris is said to have the largest library as well as 
the largest opera house in the world. The Opera 
House covers about three acres, and is beautiful both 
inside and outside. It stands apart from other build- 
ings and therefore can be seen to good advantage. 

On an island in the river stands the Cathedral of 
Notre Dame. It is hard to realize as we stand before 
this great church that it was built about 300 years 
before Columbus discovered America. We may pass 
through any one of three high, pointed arches into the 
dim interior of the building. Its great age, its size, 
its stained glass windows, its paintings, and its altars 
make it one of the most celebrated churches in the 
world. 

The streets of Paris are full of life. The people 
seem to live in them and enjoy them much more than 
we do ours. The number of cafes is very great, and 
both day and night large numbers of people may be 
seen eating at tables on the sidewalk in front of them. 
Much traveling is done in taxicabs. These are cabs 
in which there is an instrument called a taximeter 
that registers the amount of fare due. At any time 
during the ride the passenger can tell just what he 
owes the driver. A little metallic flag shows when 
the vehicle is for hire. 



THE FRENCH CAPITAL 57 

It is in the Latin Quarter that we can see most of 
tiie life of the people. It is not the fashionable part 



Fig. 30. — Cathedral of Notre Dame. 

of the city, but there is much to interest the visitor. 
Let us engage rooms in this little hotel or pension 
(pan-syon'). A high wall surrounds the building and 



58 EUROPE 



grounds. We enter through a large door and cross 
a court paved with blocks of stone. The maid who 
answers our ring shows us the rooms. There is no 
elevator, so we climb a narrow winding stairway. 



■ ^^^^^-''''^^^S 




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^^-^^^m 




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Fig. 31. — Breakfast in a garden in Paris. 

There is neither electric light nor gas in our rooms, 
nor is there any telephone. Hot water is obtained 
from the kitchen, and there is no bathtub. From 
our windows we look out over a tangle of gables, 
tiled roofs, and chimneys to the tower of an old 
cathedral. 

Luncheon and dinner are served in the dining room, 
but we eat breakfast in the garden. Here, under the 



THE FRENCH CAPITAL 59 

trees, are small tables at which we sit. Each guest 
has the same breakfast, which consists of a piece of 
hard French bread and a cup of coffee or chocolate. 
The butter that accompanies our bread is often in 
most artistic shapes, such as a lily, or a twisted 
shell. 

Within a couple of blocks is the University, which, 
like Notre Dame, is hundreds of years old ; and still 
nearer is the Pantheon. This great building is in the 
form of a cross with a dome in the middle. There 
are many wonderful pictures painted upon the walls 
and even upon the dome. ' We may climb a stairway 
to the top, which is 272 feet above the pavement, 
and there secure a splendid view over the city. 



CHAPTER VI 

BELGIUM 

Between the Netherlands and France is the king- 
dom of Belgium. Like the Netherlands it is a small 
but densely populated country. To the east is the 
German Empire, and on the west Belgium has a 
slight extent of coast line. 

Most of Belgium is low and fiat, but in the eastern 
part there is some beautiful hilly country. This 
section is a continuation of the Ardennes (ar-den') 
and portions of it rise to an elevation of 2000 feet. 
There are some forests in this part of Belgium. 

The eastern part of the country is drained by the 
Meuse or Maas River, which rises in France and flows 
across the country into Holland, where it connects 
with one of the distributaries of the Rhine. The 
Meuse is navigable, and the general levelness of the 
country has made it possible to construct many 
canals. The Scheldt is another important river. It 
drains the western part, and like the Meuse rises 
in France and reaches the ocean in Holland. The 
largest ships reach Antwerp, which is 56 miles from 
the sea. 

60 



BELGIUM 61 

More than one half of the people of Belgium live 
in the country. As we travel across it we see that 
in nearly all cases the farms are very small. In fact, 
the western part of Belgium appears like a vast num- 
ber of gardens. Very much of the farm work is done 
by hand. In the fields we see women and children as 
well as men cultivating or harvesting the crops. 

The rainfall is plentiful, the climate mild, and the 
soil fertile, therefore agriculture flourishes. There 
are good markets for the produce both at home an'd 
in England. The chief crops are sugar beets, potatoes, 
rye, flax, and tobacco. Many vegetables and flowers 
are grown under glass. 

The peasants live simply. Wooden shoes, coarse 
stockings, and short trousers tied with a ribbon 
about the calf of the leg, are worn by the men. A 
linen jacket, and a cap with a peak, complete the 
costume. Fresh meat is seldom eaten by the common 
people because it is too expensive. 

Belgium possesses coal, iron, zinc, and a little silver 
and lead, but coal is most important. The minerals 
are found chiefly in the hilly sections of the south- 
east. Iron is found near Liege (li-azh'), zinc near 
Moresnet, and coal in the vicinity of Liege, Charlevoi, 
and Mous. About 1,000,000 people, including girls 
and boys, are employed in connection with the 
industry of mining. The boys and girls are not 



62 EUROPE 

allowed to work in the mines, but are employed 
above ground. 

Because of the density of the population, the 
presence of coal and iron, and tb ^ excellent markets, 
there is much manufacturing. In Ghent, on the 
Scheldt, cotton, linen, and woolen goods are manu- 
factured. At Liege great numbers of firearms are 
made. The guns are really made by the workmen 
in their homes. It is said that there are 40,000 gun- 
smiths in and near Liege. About five miles from 
Liege is Seraing (seh-rang') where engines and heavy 
hardware are made. In Tournai many Brussels 
carpets are manufactured. At Verviers (ver-ve-a'), 
in the extreme eastern part of the country near where 
many sheep are pastured, woolen goods are produced. 

Antwerp is the great port of Belgium. As you 
have been told, it is 56 miles from the sea, but has a 
deep water harbor. Here come ships from all parts of 
the world. Canals connect the city with the Seine 
and the Rhine. Wheat, cotton, and lumber from the 
United States, coffee from Brazil, hides from Argen- 
tine Republic, and rubber and ivory from the African 
possessions of Belgium are some of the things un- 
loaded on Antwerp's wharves. As we walk along 
the river we see the masts of the ships rising in 
countless numbers, and the most improved machinery 
for loading and unloading goods. 



BELGIUM 



63 



Antwerp is a fortress as well as a port. There are 
miles of embankments and ditches. The city must 




Fig. 32. — Cathedral in Antwerp. 

have more room for expansion, and these will probably 
^e removed before long. The houses are commonly 



64 



EUROPE 



built of brick. In the old part of the city the streets 
are narrow and crooked. From the tower of the 
cathedral, which we reach by climbing a narrow^, 
winding, and very dark stairway, we obtain a fine 
view of the city. The French language is quite com- 



■ ^ — — : — ~ ■ — "^^■■■^^^^H 






Wm-- 


ijiili^^R^ '"ilirvr^ '^"^" '4 


1 -1 * ■' 1 " f. 


M'. ^HMB?*'**?'' » ' '" 


Sj 


^-v;* ,:; 1 





Fig. 33. — Dog cart delivering milk in Belgium. 

monly spoken, and French money is used. On the 
streets we see many dogs drawing milk carts, by means 
of which the milk is delivered from house to house in 
large brass cans. From one to three dogs are attached 
to a cart, and they are often driven by women. 



BELGIUM 



65 



Occasionally we see one dog hitched to a cart m the 
ordinary way, and another pulling underneath the 
cart. The driver of each cart must provide a strip of 
carpet upon which the dog may lie down when the 
cart stops, and also a drinking bowl for the animal. 
From time to time the cans are examined, and the 
milk tested by inspectors. 




'Pl^fl 



:MM 




MXi 







PTioto. 7>y Howell. 



Fig. 34. — Hotel de Ville, Brussels. 



Brussels, the capital of Belgium, is a very interest- 
ing city. It covers much ground, for the people like 
to live in their own homes, and so of course have to 
go beyond the business districts. The city is situated 
almost in the center of the country, but a canal en- 
ables ships to load and unload goods at its wharves. 
Carpets and laces are manufactured extensively. 



66 EUROPE 

In the center of the city, on one side of a large 
open court, is the city hall, built several hundred years 
ago. It has one large and several small towers which 
until the fifteenth century were covered with plates 
of gold. As both the Flemish and the French lan- 
guages are spoken, signs and the names of streets are 
written or printed in both. 



CHAPTER YII 

THE LAND OF CANALS 

If you have ever been to the seashore, you have 
seen the white-crested waves dashing against the 
land. If you were to observe for days or weeks, you 
would see a never ending procession of waves doing 
the same thing, for the sea is never at rest. The waves 
are caused by the winds, and therefore the more vio- 
lently the wind blows, the higher the waves become. 
When storms prevail, the force of the waves as they 
beat against the coast is so great that large masses of 
rock are sometimes moved. At such times the roar 
of the waves can be heard for a long distance, and 
the spray is dashed high into the air when they strike 
the land. 

Coast lines are being constantly changed by the 
waves. Rocks are torn down from cliffs, and as they 
lie upon the beach, smaller rocks, pebbles, and sand 
grains are hurled against them, breaking off corners 
and making them smaller and smoother. In the 
course of time the rocks are ground up into the fine 
sand and mud which is found along many beaches. 
This work of the waves is known as erosion. 

67 



68 



EUROPE 



In places waves, currents, and tides are depositing 
the material obtained from the ground-up rocks. In 
this way sand bars, capes, peninsulas, and islands are 
formed. Because of this, some coasts are known as 
ivearing and some as huilding coasts. 

Twice each day the waters of the ocean in all parts 
of the world slowly rise along the shore, and if the 
land be low, move in, covering it. In this way the 




Fig. 35. — A country scene in Holland. 



Photo, hy Eoioell. 



depth of the water in the bays, harbors, and mouths 
of rivers is increased. After rising for several hours, 
the w^ater slowly falls and moves out, uncovering the 
low land. This regular rise and fall of the water is 
known as the tide. 

Hans and Greitje are little Holland children. Their 
country is very low. In fact, there are no mountains 



THE LAND OF CANALS 69 

in any part of it. Across its low, flat surface flow the 
Rhine, the Meuse, the Scheldt, and other smaller rivers. 
The material which these streams have deposited has 
added much to the area of Holland. 

A part of Holland is below the level of the ocean 
at high tide, and if not protected would be covered 
by the water. Many times in the past, when the 
winds have blown violently from the North Sea, the 
angry waters have rushed in upon the land, covering 
farms and towns alike. For centuries there has been 
a constant struggle between the sea and the brave, 
patient, and industrious Hollanders. 

Finally the people determined that they would 
conquer the sea, and so they built along the shore 
great walls called dikes. Hans and Greitje have often 
walked upon these, and looked down upon the water 
which beats in vain against them. Nearly one half 
of Holland is land that has been gained from the 
ocean by means of the dikes. 

In the construction of the dikes, sand, clay, willows 
and great blocks of stone are used. The stone comes 
from Germany and Norway, for Holland has very 
little. There are many miles of these sea-walls, and 
they must be constantly watched, for the angry sea 
is ever pounding against them. Should a break oc- 
cur, it would rapidly increase in size, and unless re- 
paired quickly farms and towns would be covered 



70 EUROPE 

with water, as much of the land is heloiv the level 
of the ocean. 

The people of Holland were not content with shut- 
ting out the sea. Their country is very small, and 
they needed more land. Therefore they began to 
drain the lakes and marshes. This is slow and ex- 
pensive work. A dike is first built around the area 
to be drained or reclaimed. Canals are dug to some 
larger canal, and pumps placed within the wall. By 
this means the water is pumped into the canal, and 
it finally reaches the sea. 

Here another difficulty is met. At high tide the 
water will not run from the canals into the sea, for 
then the sea is higher than the land. On this ac- 
count the seaward ends of these canals are closed at 
high tide and opened at low tide. Even after the 
area has been drained the pumps are necessary, for 
the soil is full of water. Finally the reclaimed land 
becomes dry enough to use, and here fine farms have 
been established. These reclaimed portions are called 
polders. 

You see, then, that Holland is a land of canals as 
well as of dikes. They extend in all directions across 
the country. There are big canals upon which large 
vessels move to and fro, and little canals where only 
small boats can be used. Ditches, instead of fences, 
separate farms and fields. 



THE LAND OF CANALS 71 

Much of the business of Holland is done by means 
of these waterways. Many thousands of people live 
on boats in winter as well as in summer. These boats 
have a mast and a sail, but generally we may see 
them being drawn by a horse walking along the 
bank, or, in some cases, by people. 

Hans and Greitje like to watch these canal boats 
as they pass the little farm upon which they live. 
On the forward end of the boat are vegetables, cheese, 
butter, and eggs which are being sent to market. In 
a little cabin at the stern of the boat live the owner 
and his family. The cabin has a small window 
on either side, and there are pots of flowers and 
usually a canary bird to be seen. Some of these 
boats make short trips, and some go far up the 
Rhine carrying food to the German cities along 
the river. When they come back they are loaded 
with German stone to be used in building and repair- 
ing dikes. 

Everywhere, in city as well as in country, windmills 
lift their arms against the sky. As Holland is so level 
there is generally a good breeze blowing, and so the 
arms of the windmills turn busily. These windmills 
are constantly pumping the water from the land into 
the canals, and so, you see, the wind does much work 
for the thrifty Hollanders. To-day a good deal of 
the pumping is done by means of steam. It is clear 



72 



EUROPE 



that dikes, canals, and windmills are all necessary to 
the existence of this little land. 

The parents of Hans and Greitje are very thrifty 
farmers, for in Holland the women as well as the 
men work in the fields. The cows are their especial 
pride. They are sleek black and white creatures, and 
are very carefully tended. As the country is so wet. 




Fig. 36. — a Dutch windmill. 



Photo, by Howell. 



there is good pasturage, and therefore dairying is im- 
portant. Large quantities of butter and cheese are 
exported to the British Isles. Much attention is given 
to market gardening, and vegetables are grown exten- 
sively under glass as well as in the open air. The peo- 
ple give much attention to the cultivation of flowers, 
and fields of beautiful tulips are frequently seen. 
The farmhouse is small but neat. There is a 



THE LAND OF CANALS 73 

large living room, which is also a bedroom. The 
beds are built into the walls like cupboards, and in 
front of each is a curtain. Over the fireplace is a 
plate rail, upon which there are several blue plates. 
At one end of the room is a spinning wheel, for 
Greitje's mother spins the flax grown on the farm, as 
well as the wool which their few sheep produce. 
Once a year a weaver visits the house and weaves 
the flax and wool into cloth. 

Hans wears a black cap, baggy trousers, a waist 
with a double row of buttons on the front, and a pair 
of wooden shoes. These clatter upon the ground 
when he walks. When he enters the house he leaves 
these just outside the door. Occasionally, when 
walking along a city street, you will pass a shop 
where these shoes are made. Wooden shoes are not 
worn commonly now, except on the farms and in the 
small towns. Greitje is dressed in a white waist, a 
short dark skirt, and wooden shoes. Upon her head 
she wears a little cap. 

In the winter Holland is a cold country. About 
Christmas time the marshes and canals freeze, and 
then the boats can no longer glide between their tree- 
bordered banks. The canals are not deserted even in 
the winter. Then Hans, Greitje, and all of the other 
Holland children, get out their skates. All winter 
the canals are busy places. Young, as well as old, 



74 EUROPE 

enjoy the sport. But skating is not simply a sport 
with these people. The children skate to and from 
school. Physicians skate to visit patients. The 
butcher and baker take and deliver orders in this 
way, and the milkman pushes his milk sled over the 
ice. 

Sometimes long trips are made upon the ice. 
There is a society which for years has kept the snow 
swept from the canals, and signs are posted telhng 
people just what courses to take. Here and there 
along the canals are booths or restaurants where re- 
freshments may be obtained. The people greatly 
enjoy skating. It is a splendid exercise, and the 
keen frosty air makes the cheeks red and the eyes 
bright. As the skaters wheel upon the ice, playing 
games and cutting figures, there is much merriment. 

Holland is not a manufacturing country, for it lacks 
coal, iron, petroleum, and timber. Yery much com- 
merce is carried on with European countries^ the East 
Indies, and other parts of the world. Commerce is 
favored by the position of Holland, her easy means 
of transportation, and her excellent commercial 
schools. 

Let us visit the city of Amsterdam. It is situated 
upon the Amstel River, which gave it its name, which 
was formerly Amsteldam. This means the dam of 
the AmsteL Like Venice, it is a city of canals. The 



THE LAND OF CANALS 



75 



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EUBOPE 



number of these is so great that they divide the city 
into 90 islands. Several hundred bridges enable the 
inhabitants to cross the canals in all parts of the 
city. 

Amsterdam is on the shore of the Zuider Zee, which 
is the Dutch name for South Sea. This body of 
water was called the South Sea because it is south of 
the North Sea. A canal connects the city with the 




Photo, by Hoiuell. 



Fig. 38. — A bridge in Amsterdam. 

mouth of the Rhine, and another extends northward 
to the sea. 

As the land in the city is so wet, it is not easy to 
secure good foundations for buildings. Many of the 
houses are built upon piles driven into the mud. 
Often the mud moves after the houses have been con- 
structed, and so many of them lean a little. In the 



THE LAND OF CANALS 



77 



older part of the city the streets are narrow and 
crooked. 

Boats are constantly moving to and fro upon the 
canals, carrying goods from one part of Amsterdam 
to another. There are several sets of canals extend- 




FiG. 39. — Children of Holland. 



Photo, by Howell. 



ing around the city, which is nearly circular in form. 
There are car lines also. These lines are numbered, 
and the corresponding numbers are placed upon the 
cars. 

One of the interesting industries in Amsterdam is 
the cutting and polishing of diamonds. Most of these 
come from South Africa. 



78 



EUROPE 



A few miles northwest of Amsterdam is the town 
of Zaandam. This we can reach by boat, for the two 
places are connected by canal. After leaving Amster- 




FiG. 40. — A scene in Rotterdam. 



THE LAND OF CANALS 79 

dam we pass through a fine farming country. It is 
very interesting to observe, as we travel along this 
canal, that we are higher than the grain fields on 
either side. Should the dikes along the canal break, 
the waters would pour over the farms, destroying the 
crops and the homes of the people. 

At Zaandam we see many people wearing the quaint 
Dutch costume, including the wooden shoes. There 
is a little garden in connection with nearly every 
house. Occasionally we see a woman washing clothes 
in a canal, for many of the houses are built right 
beside them. 

The greatest port and commercial center is Rotter- 
dam, situated upon the River Rotte, near the mouth 
of the Rhine. This gives the city a great commercial 
advantage. Large ships can reach her wharves, for 
the water in the canals is deep. Some of the canals 
are quite pleasing, with their shade trees and arched 
bridges. The water of others is polluted, because 
fruits and vegetables and other refuse from stores are 
thrown into them. 

The houses are commonly built of brick, and many 
of them lean. Along the canals they rise directly 
from the water's edge as they do in Venice. In the 
gables of many of them you will observe a stout 
hook. When furniture or other goods are to be 
placed in these houses, a pully and rope are attached 



80 



EUROPE 




Photo, by Howell. 

Fig. 41. — A quiet canal in Delft. 



to the hook, and the goods are raised and put through 
an open window. This makes it unnecessary to have 
wide stairways, and thus saves room in the houses. 
There are nearly always flowers in the windows. 



TUE LAND OF CANALS 



81 



whetlier the house be large or small. Birds in cages 
are quite commonly seen also. Although you cannot 





' 




1^ ^^r'^?**t^:'!!^^^*!^.te 





V^H Fig. 42. — The Hague. 

see the lady of the house as you pass the open 
window, she can see you, as in many of the houses 
a system of mirrors is so arranged that much that 
goes on in the street in front of the house can be seen 



82 EUROPE 

from witliin. Often we observe on the houses the 
date of their erection. 

About halfway between Rotterdam and the Hague 
is the city of Delft. This, like many other cities in 
the Netherlands, has interesting canals, bridges, and 
churches. Delft is celebrated for the manufacture of 
pottery from the excellent pottery clay found there. 

The Hague, or, as the Dutch say, " Haag," is sur- 
rounded by beautiful old forest trees. It is the home 
of the royal family, although Amsterdam is really the 
capital. It is but a short distance to the coast, where 
extensive sand dunes may be seen. In this city great 
peace conferences have been held, and here has been 
erected a beautiful building dedicated to the interest 
of world peace. From the Hague we travel by train 
to the Hook, where we bid good-by to the " Land of 
Canals." 




Longitude 5" West from Greenwich 0° Longitude East 



Fig. 18. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE GERMAN EMPIRE 

In every city in our land, and in all parts of the 
country as well, there are men and women whose 
fatherland is Germany. While these people are 
proud of their new home, they love their native land, 
which is one of the most important countries in the 
world. It is not a large country, being much smaller 
than Texas, but its population is two thirds as great 
as that of the United States. The possessions of 
Germany in Africa are much larger than the home 
country. 

Germany has quite an extensive coast line, but as 
the country is so far north, some of the harbors are 
frozen over for a considerable time each winter. 
This is especially true of those on the Baltic coast. 
The Danish Peninsula extends northward from Ger- 
many toward Norway and Sweden, leaving a narrow 
strait between the two peninsulas. This strait could 
be closed by the Scandinavian countries, and besides 
it is a long journey by this passage from Germany's 
North Sea ports to her Baltic ports. In order to 
remedy these conditions, Germany dug the Kiel or 



84 EUROPE 

Kaiser Wilhelm Canal across the base of the Danish 
Peninsula. 

Southern Germany is a highland region, consist- 
ing of mountains, plateaus, and small valleys. This 
section is therefore not well adapted to agriculture. 
Many legends cluster about the tree-covered moun- 
tains. The people of long ago believed that giants, 
dragons, and fairies inhabited them. 

The northern part of Germany is a low plain sloping 
gently to the North and the Baltic seas. The rivers 
rise in the mountains and flow slowly across the 
plain. They are quite navigable, and the lowland 
has made it easy to dig canals which connect the 
different river systems. ^ The plain favors the build- 
ing of railroads, and it is here that agriculture is 
most extensively carried on. 

As Germany is not surrounded by water, its climate 
is not so mild as that of the British Isles, yet it is 
tempered by the winds that blow from the Atlantic. 
Although Berlin is farther north than Duluth, its 
winters are much warmer. Rainfall is heavier in the 
western than in the eastern part of the Empire, but 
there is enough in all sections. 

The soil in Germany is not naturally very fertile, 
but it has been made very productive. In the 
northern part there is much sandy soil. We observe 
that the farms are generally small, and that they are 



THE GERMAN EMPIRE 85 

divided into long, narrow fields, each planted to a dif- 
ferent crop. As each crop requires different amounts 
of the various plant foods, the crop in a given field 
is changed every few years. This change is called 
" rotation of crops." As we travel across Germany 
we see these garden-like fields, one devoted to oats, 
another to rye, another to barley, another to potatoes, 
and so on. 

In our country it is not uncommon to see consider- 
able waste land on the farms, and crops poorly cul- 
tivated. In Germany all of the land is used, and the. 
crops are very carefully worked. A very large amount 
of money is spent each year for artificial fertilizers, 
and everything is done to make the soil yield as much 
food as possible. This is necessary because of the 
large population. 

Not very long ago Germany had to buy sugar. 
Now she exports sugar. This is because of the cul- 
tivation of the sugar beet, and its use in the manu- 
facture of sugar. In addition to sugar beets, barley, 
oats, rye, and potatoes are grown very extensively on 
the northern plain. Besides being used as a food for 
people, potatoes are fed to cattle, and are employed 
in the manufacture of starch and alcohol. You will 
be interested to know that from potatoes the Germans 
make a composition that takes the place of wood in 
the manufacture of lead pencils. 



86 EUROPE 

In the most sunny parts of the valleys of the Rhine 
and the Moselle grapes are grown, and from them 
wine is manufactured. Only the hardy fruits are 
grown successfully in Germany. Although so much 
food is produced at home, great quantities are im- 
ported, owing to the large population. 

As we travel from one part of Germany to another, 
we see many forests. In fact, forests cover about 
one fourth of the total area of the Empire. The 
Germans regard the forests as a crop^ and much land 
has been planted to trees. Looking out of our car 
windows we see fields containing rows of tiny forest 
trees, others in which the trees are several feet high, 
and still others in which they are ready to cut. 
Much of the poorer soil on the lowlands is used for 
tree planting, and forests clothe the mountains in all 
parts of the country. 

The Germans protect their forests ; they carefully 
select the trees to be cut, and when they have been 
removed, others are planted. Forestry is more suc- 
cessful in Germany than it is in our country because 
it has been carried on for a long time, and also be- 
cause so much of the forest land belongs to the govern- 
ment. In the Black Forest excellent roads have been 
constructed, and are kept in repair by means of the 
profits obtained from the government forests. For 
centuries the making of toys has been a household 



88 EUROPE 

industry in this part of Germany. Some of these toys 
are shipped to the United States. Although so much 
lumber is produced at home, a great deal is imported. 

Only two countries exceed Germany in the produc- 
tion of coal — the United States and England. She 
has vast deposits of iron, and much lead, zinc, silver, 
copper, salt, building stone, and mineral waters. The 
coal and iron have enabled Germany to become very 
important as a manufacturing country. As in Great 
Britain and France, the important manufacturing cen- 
ters are near the coal fields. One of these centers 
is in Saxony on the north slope of the Erzgebirge or 
" Ore Mountains." Here the cities of Chemnitz, Dres- 
den, and Zwickau are located. Cologne, which is near, 
the greatest of the German coal fields. Barmen, and 
Elberfeld are other centers noted for manufacturing. 

The traveling salesmen of Germany are in all parts 
of the world developing markets for the goods manu- 
factured at home. Iron and steel goods, textiles, 
scientific and musical instruments, cutlery, beet sugar, 
wine, beer, toys, books, and maps are the most impor- 
tant. See upon how many articles you can find the 
words, "Made in Germany." It is not alone her 
wealth of coal and iron that enables Germany to be 
a great manufacturing nation. The people are indus- 
trious and intelligent, and in their schools they receive 
an education which fits them to carry on this work. 



THE Gi^RMAN EMPIRE 89 

Several countries border upon the German Empire. 
Therefore a very large standing army is kept up. 
Military service is compulsory, and practically all 
able-bodied men spend two years in the army. They 
may be called upon at any time during a much longer 
period if they are needed. As we go from one city 
to another we frequently see soldiers marching to and 
fro. The boys are given some military training in 
the schools, and in every way the nation is always 
preparing for war. 

Germany's greatest ports are on the North Sea 
rather than on the Baltic Sea. One of these is 
Bremen, at the mouth of the Weser. This city is 
more than 1000 years old. While vessels of large 
size reach Bremen, some are obliged to load and un- 
load at its outer port, Bremerhaven. When the 
river is ice-bound, Bremerhaven is still more impor- 
tant. Wheat, rice, meat, coffee, cotton, wool, tobacco, 
and lumber are important imports. 

Hamburg, like Bremen, faces the Americas. As 
the Elbe is larger and more navigable than the Weser, 
Hamburg is the more important of the two ports. In 
fact, it is the chief port on the mainland of Europe. 
No city in the world has greater advantages for loading 
and unloading ships. There are extensive docks, and 
the most modern machinery is used. At the mouth 
of the Elbe is Cuxhaven, the outer port of the city. 



90 



EUROPE 



On the Spree, a tributary of the Elbe, is located 
Berlin, the capital of the German Empire. Its posi- 
tion is quite central, and it is on important routes of 
travel, both east and west, and north and south. 




Copyright iy Brown Bros. 

Fig. 45. — Wharf scene, Hamburg, Germany. 



The land surrounding the city is low, flat, and sandy. 
A canal connects the Oder and the Spree, and this 
makes it possible to ship goods by water from Breslau 
to Hamburg. 

As in the cities in our country, cabs and omnibuses 
are in waiting at all railway stations to carry pas- 



THE GERMAN EMPIRE 91 

sengers to their hotels. When one registers at a 
hotel, the clerk asks a number of questions, for the 
proprietor must report to the police all strangers 
within six days after their arrival. 

Berlin is a great manufacturing center. About 
one half of the total population of the city is engaged 
in this work. Nearly all kinds of articles are made, 
but clothing is particularly important. Most of the 
manufacturing is done in the eastern part of the 
capital, while the west side is the fashionable resi- 
dential section of the city. 

The German capital is interesting and beautiful. 
Its streets are clean, and most of them are quite wide. 
The most noted is Unter den Linden, or, as we would 
say, " Under the Linden." This street was given its 
name because lime trees border either side. It is 
nearly 200 feet in width, and facing it are fine resi- 
dences, hotels, and shops. It is the most fashionable 
boulevard of the city, and one of the most noted in 
the world. 

Unter den Linden is only about one mile in length, 
and we can easily walk from one end to the other, and 
so see it very thoroughly. At the west end is a great 
arch called the Brandenburg Gate. Just beyond are 
government buildings, and a large number of marble 
statues of Prussian rulers. Here begins a famous 
park known as the Thiergarten or '^ animal garden." 



92 EUROPE 

At the east end of the street is the University of 
Berlin, a great church called the Dom, the Museum, 
the Gallery, and the Royal Palace, about which we see 
soldiers. 

We pay a small fee and are admitted to the palace. 
Before beginning an inspection of the rooms we are 




Photo, by Bmvell. 

Fig. 46. — The Dom in Berlin. 

required to put on a pair of felt slippers. These pre- 
vent the highly polished floors from being scratched 
by our shoes. The slippers are so loose that we are 
compelled to go about with a comical sliding move- 
ment. 

A guard takes us from room to room, showing us 
the costly furniture and the beautiful pictures. There 



THE GERMAN EMPIRE 



93 



are cases filled with the finest of porcelain, glass, silver- 
ware, and linen for the tables. Much of this material 
represents gifts to the royal family. A passageway 
leads from the palace to a balcony in a church, so that 
the occupants of the palace may attend services with- 
out using the street entrance. 




Fig. 47. — Rathhaus in Leipzig. 



Photo, hy Hoivell. 



When we ride about Berlin in the street cars, we 
observe that they are not crowded as they are in our 
cities. Only a few passengers are permitted to stand, 
and in some cases none. A placard tells the number 
of seats in the car, and also the number of passengers 
who may stand. When a car contains its full number 
of passengers, no more are allowed to get on. The 
same thing is true in other German cities. 



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THE GEBMAN EMPIRE 



95 



Leipzig, an interesting old city, is situated upon 
important routes of trade and travel. Two or three 
tributaries of the Elbe flow through the city, and 
from these considerable power is developed. Hun- 




P/lvh. h,j 

Fig. 49. — Women sawing wood in Munich. 

dreds of years ago the custom originated of holding 
three fairs yearly in Leipzig. The introduction of 
railroads has caused the trade at these fairs to decrease, 
but they are still quite important. Each fair lasts 
from three to fiYQ weeks, and is attended by people 
from other countries as well as by those from various 



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parts of Germany. Leipzig carries on a very exten- 
sive trade in fur, wool, and books. One of its most 
noted buildings is the Rathhaus or town hall which 
was built in 1556. 

The Kingdom of Saxony is densely populated, and 
carries on much manufacturing. Dresden, its capi- 
tal, is situated on the Elbe River, and is sometimes 
called the " German Florence." This is because it has 
so many splendid art galleries and museums. Dres- 
den is visited by students of music and art from all 
parts of the world. Because coal is near at hand the 
city is important in manufacturing also. Dresden 
extends along both banks of the Elbe, which is 
spanned by several fine bridges. 

The largest city in southern Germany, and the 
capital of Bavaria, is Munich. It is built beside a 
waterfall in the Isar River, and therefore power is 
developed. Near by are deposits of marble, and this 
has attracted many sculptors to the city. Only a few 
miles away is the quiet little town of Oberammergau, 
where every ten years the Passion Play is given. 
This custom originated several hundred years ago, 
and people from all over the world attend. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE EIYER RHINE 

Of all the rivers of the world, none is more interest- 
ing than the Rhine. Up and down its valley armies 
have marched during many centuries. Upon its lofty 
banks were built many great castles, some of which 
yet remain. To-day one may see almost countless 
boats going to and fro bearing the products of field, 
forest, mine, and factory. At the bottom of the 
gorge, on either side of the river, a railroad follows 
the windings of the stream and the old and new are 
here woven together in a most wonderful fashion. 

Let us take a train in the ' German capital, and 
travel southwest to the valley of the Rhine. The 
train, we find, differs from trains in the United States. 
The cars are divided into rooms called compartments, 
each of which will seat from six to ten persons. 
An aisle extends along one side of some cars, but 
passengers cannot walk from car to car, for the doors 
are locked. 

On the outside of each compartment is a placard 
telling its class. Before we enter we must be sure 
that this corresponds with the class stamped upon 

H 97 



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our tickets. Some compartments are reserved for 
ladies, and in some smoking is prohibited. These 
facts also are indicated by placards. When we have 
taken our seats, we observe that there is a notice 
printed upon each window-sill forbidding passengers 
to lean out of the windows. This is only one of many 
things forbidden in Germany. While we were in the 
station at Berlin we found that we were not permitted 
to walk close to the edge of the platform. It is un- 
lawful to cross a railroad except at certain places. 
While such regulations seem strange to us, they pre- 
vent many accidents. 

As our train carries us across the German plain 
we observe the well-tilled farms already spoken of. 
Women, as well as men, are at work in the fields. 
In some cases grass and grain are being cut by 
means of scythes. Here and there oxen, and even 
cows, are used in plowing. 

We shall not on this trip see the headwaters 
of the Rhine, for the river rises among the snow- 
crowned peaks of Switzerland. It passes through 
Lake Constance, which is important in regulating 
its flow, and soon enters a very fertile and sunny 
part of Germany. Here the river has built quite a 
broad plain where grains, flax, hemp, tobacco, hops, 
and grapes grow. On the west rise the Yosges 
Mountains, which for a considerable distance form 



THE BIVEB RHINE 



99 



the boundary between Germany and France, and on 

the east the famous Black Forest or " Schwarzwald." 

Within a few miles of where the Neckar enters 

the Rhine is the beautiful city of Heidelberg. Many 




Photo, hy Howell. 



Fig. 50. — Heidelberg Castle, Inner Court. 



think that it is the most beautiful city in the German 
Empire. A part of Heidelberg is built upon the 
flat land bordering the river, but many buildings are 
partly hidden by the trees that clothe the steep hill- 
sides. From one of the hilltops Heidelberg Castle 
looks down upon the city. Ivy clings to its walls as 
though to hide the marks of age and of war. Beau- 



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tiful shaded walks lead to various parts of the 
grounds. 

Just before reaching the Rhine our train passes 
through Frankfurt. This city is located on the 
Main, the largest eastern tributary of the Rhine. 
Long ago a people known as the Franks established 




Photo, by Howell. 

Fig. 51. — Old Bridge over the Main at Frankfurt. 

2^ ford or crossing place here, and this gave the city 
its name. In early times great fairs were held here 
because it was located on an important route of 
travel. On one of the squares is a statue of the 
great German poet Schiller. 

As we travel south westward from Frankfurt we 
reach the city of Mainz. Here the plain ends, and 
the Rhine enters a wonderful gorge about 125 miles 



TBE EIVER RHINE 



101 



in length. At this point we leave onr train and 
take a boat in order more fully to enjoy the 
scenery. 

Only a short distance 
below Mainz we come to 
" Fair Bingen on the Rhine." 
This ancient town is situated 
on the left bank of the river, 
and extends in terraces far 
above the water. Forest 
trees partly conceal the up- 
per part of the town. On 
the opposite slope, which 
faces the sun, the land has 
been carefully terraced and 
planted to grapevines. 

On the north bank, 700 
feet above our boat, the 
Germans have erected a 
great monument which they 
call Germania. Here also, 
apparently clinging to the 
rocks, is the Castle of Ehren- 
fels, the first of many which 
we shall see during our ride. Now our boat glides 
past an island from which rises the ancient " Mouse 
Tower." Have you heard the story about it? 




Photo, by Hmoell. 

Fig. 52. — Statue of Schiller in 
Frankfurt. 



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We see many steamboats carrying freight and 
passengers, and also tugs towing from one to six 
barges each. These barges are loaded with coal, 
stone, lumber, grain, potatoes, and other things. 
One tug can tow as many tons of freight as can be 
carried by several trains of average length. This is 




Fig. 53. — The Mouse Tower 



Ihoto. by Edwards. 



one reason why water transportation is cheap. For- 
merly the Rhine was not so navigable as it is to-day. 
The Germans have spent vast sums of money in im- 
proving it. The river has been straightened, deepened, 



THE BIVEB RHINE 



103 



and, for a long distance, made almost uniform in 
width. 

Now from its lofty perch on the left bank the 
Rheinstein frowns down upon us. This is the sum- 
mer home of the Emperor, and so we are especially 




Fhotv. by Edwards. 



Fig. 54. — Falkenburg Castle on the Rhine. 



interested in it. At almost every turn in the river 
we see upon the one bank or the other a gray castle. 
Some are in ruins, and some are inhabited. They 
seem almost to be a part of the cliffs upon which 
they stand. Ivy has spread its protecting mantle 



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over walls and towers, as though trying to hide the 
scars which nature and man have made. We can 
imagine the former owners of these fortresses, clad 
in their suits of armor, and accompanied by their 




Photo, by Edwards. 



Fig. 55. — Ehrenbreitstein. 



soldiers, descending a steep path to the river's edge, 
and demanding tribute of those who traveled up and 
down the Rhine. 

There are many rapids in the river caused by rocks 
that almost reach the surface, as well as by islands. 
Here the stream flows swiftly. In one place, known 



THE BIVER RHINE 



105 



as the Lorelei, the water dashes against steep diffs. 
Long ago boatmen were sometimes wrecked here. 
When they shouted for help, the echo was repeated 
many times. Because of the noise of the waters, the 
mist, and the echoes, superstitious people believed 
that an enchantress lurked about these rocks and 
enticed the boatmen to their destruction. Have you 
heard the song, " The Lorelei " ? 




Fig. 56. — Bridge of Boats at Coblentz. 



Photo, by Howell. 



Still farther down we come to Coblentz, a city 
established by the Romans, where the Moselle enters 
the Rhine. Here the river is guarded by a great 
fortress called JEhrenbreitstein, which means " The 
Broad Stone of Honor." An interesting bridge 
spans the river at this point. It consists of boats 



106 EUROPE 

with a sort of platform resting upon them. As our 




Fig. 57. — Cathedral of Cologne. 



boat approaches, the bridge is opened in the center, 
and we pass through. 

Below Coblentz the gorge is not so deep, and the 



THE RIVER RHINE 107 

scenery is less grand. At Cologne, or Koln, another 
Eoman city, we leave the boat, having had one of the 
most enjoyable days of our lives. Cologne was founded 
a few years before the birth of Christ, and for hundreds 
of years has been an important city. During the Mid- 
dle Ages it was noted for its trade in cloth, gold, 
and silver. Nearly 1000 years ago the merchants of 
Cologne carried on commerce with London. The city 
is still important because of its manufactures and its 
commerce, but visitors are especially interested in its 
great and beautiful cathedral. The present cathedral 
of Cologne was commenced about 1275, and was not 
completed for several hundred years. Its great spires 
rise to a height of about 500 feet. The windows of 
stained glass admit a soft light to the interior of this 
wonderful building. 

The ships that ascend the Rhine to Cologne, or 
descend to its mouth, must pass through a foreign 
country, for the lower part of the great German 
river is in Holland. A great seaport has grown up 
at Rotterdam, and considerable German commerce 
passes through this city. 

After having taken this trip upon the Rhine we 
have a better understanding of its commercial value. 
We now appreciate more fully the love of the Ger- 
mans for this beautiful river and valley, and the 
spirit with which they sing their national hymn, 
" Die Wacht am Rhein." 



CHAPTER X 



DENMARK 



Jutland is one of the few peninsulas in the world 
that point northward, and Denmark occupies the 
northern part of it. Denmark is a very small country, 
being less than twice as large as Massachusetts. 
Hundreds of years ago it was the most important of 
the Scandinavian countries. Her people, who were 
known as Norsemen^ were skillful sailors and bold 
sea-fighters. They were feared throughout western 
Europe, and for a long time it was customary to offer 
prayers in the churches for deliverance from their 
fury. 

The Danes first landed in England in the . year 
787. As years passed, their visits became frequent, 
and finally the people were compelled to pay them a 
tax called Danegelt, meaning Danegold. This tax 
did not long satisfy the Danes, who continued to 
fight and plunder until they became the rulers of 
England. This occurred in 1017, and they remained 
in power until 1042. 

England was only one of many countries which these 
fierce seamen invaded. In their long, narrow boats, 

108 



DENMARK 109 

on which, both oars and sails were used, they visited 
Germany, France, Spain, Italy, and the northern coast 
of Africa. More than once they went up the Seine 
River as far as Paris, and plundered that city. 

As seamen, the Danes became so skillful and so 
daring that they visited Iceland and Greenland, and 
probably New England. At any rate, in 1002 they 
landed in a country called by them V inland, and 
believed by many to be what is now New England. 
Vinland means wineland, and it is said that these 
early explorers gave this name to New England 
because they saw grapevines growing there. One 
party remained for three years, but no permanent 
settlement was attempted. 

Denmark once included the southern part of the 
peninsula of Jutland, a little of Russia, and Norway 
and Sweden. She now rules over Greenland, Iceland, 
the Faroe Islands, and three small islands in the 
West Indies. 

The position of Denmark makes it more important 
than it would otherwise be. Look at the map and 
you will see that the Danish islands of Seeland, 
Aaland, and Fyen lie at the southern end of the 
Cattegat, which is a part of the channel connecting 
the North Sea with the Baltic Sea. This made it 
possible for the Danes to control this very important 
commercial highway. Near the northeast end of the 



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island of Seeland, where the strait is very narrow, 
Kronberg Castle was built, and her guns compelled all 
foreign ships that passed through the sound to pay a 
toll. This did not please the nations of Europe, and 
in 1857 they compelled Denmark to accept $90,000- 
000, for the privilege of using the sound without the 
payment of a toll. 

Neither rushing streams nor waterfalls are to be 
found in Denmark, for the country is very flat. It 




Photo, hy Howell. 

Fig. 58. — The Bersen, Copenhagen. 

has neither coal nor other mineral wealth except clay, 
and not much timber. Because of these conditions, 
manufacturing is not extensively carried on. 

The flatness of the land favors agriculture, which is 
the leading industry. The farms are generally small. 
Although there are no great cattle ranches such as 



DENMARK 



111 



there are in our country, many cattle are raised, and 
some meat is exported. Dairy products are the most 
vakiable exports, millions of dollars worth being sent 
to Great Britain yearly. Great numbers of eggs are 
exported, also. 

Copenhagen, which means Merchants' Harbor, has 
the only good harbor which the country affords. 




Fig. 59. — A flower market, Copenhagen. 



hy Howell. 



The city is, as you see, situated upon the island of 
Seeland chiefly, although a part of it is upon the 
small island of Amager. The capital is the important 
commercial and manufacturing center of the nation. 
When the Kiel Canal was opened in 1895, the com- 
mercial importance of Copenhagen began to decline. 

There are many canals in Copenhagen and build- 
ings extend along either side of these, just as they 



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do in Venice. Some of these buildings are very 
picturesque in appearance. The canals make the 
transportation of commodities from one part of the 
city to another very cheap. 

Copenhagen, like other great cities, has its cele- 
brated street. It is called the Lange Linne. Here, 
every afternoon, may be seen the carriages of the 
rich. Originally this fashionable drive, which is on 
a narrow strip of land between the citadel and the 
sea, was occupied by fortifications. 

The people of Denmark are stalwart and dignified. 
They are genial, generous, and generally well educated. 
They are successful business men, and among the 
best farmers in the world. 

ICELAND 

Although Iceland extends as far north as the Arc- 
tic Circle, its name is not appropriate. It is by no 
means a land of ice, for the ocean moderates its cli- 
mate very much. By some, the island has been 
called " The Land of Fire " because of its volcanoes, 
geysers, and hot springs. There are more than a 
hundred volcanoes, many of which have been in erup- 
tion since Iceland was discovered. Hecla is perhaps 
the best known. Hecla means " cloak." It was 
given this name because clouds of steam partly cloak 
or hide it during an eruption. 



DENMARK 



113 



One of the geysers is known as the Great Geyser. 
When it erupts, it throws many tons of water to a 
height of 60 feet. There is upon the island a 
waterfall called Gullfoss, which means '' Gold Fall." 




Copyright by Brown Bros. 

Fig. 60. — A street in Reykjavik, Iceland. 

It is said to be almost as grand as Niagara. People 
are beginning to visit Iceland to see these wonders of 
nature. 

There are neither railroads nor stage lines in Ice- 
land, and all traveling must be done on foot or by 



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means of ponies. These ponies are very hardy and 
can travel long distances in a day.. As the only towns 
are on the coast, people who visit the interior of Ice- 
land must be entertained in the homes of the farmers. 
These are very few and far apart, for the interior is 
almost a desert. The farmers are very hospitable, and 
give the best that they have to their visitors. 

Nearly all of the farms are close to the coast, and 
upon these sheep and ponies are raised. Many of the 
people spin and weave the wool in their own homes, 
and make their own clothing. Considerable down is 
obtained from the eider duck. Along the coast fish- 
ing is carried on. 

There are no forests, no mines, no factories, and no 
large cities in Iceland. There are no schools in the 
country, and yet all of the people can read and write. 
The long winters give much time for reading, and the 
people of Iceland are students. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE LAND OF FIORDS 

From the northwestern part of Russia, the great 
Scandinavian peninsula extends southward for hun- 
dreds of miles. It consists of two countries, Norway 
and Sweden. A large, mouthlike bay, which seems 
ready to swallow little Denmark, partially separates 
Norway and Sweden at the south. 

Norway is a long, narrow country, facing the 
North Atlantic Ocean. Its southern end is about 
700 miles north of the northern boundary of Maine, 
while its northern end is far beyond the Arctic Circle. 
It is a little larger than Italy, yet in all of the country 
there are fewer people than are to be found in the city 
of Paris. 

The map will help us to understand why this is so. 
The country is made up of mountains and plateaus, 
and therefore a large population cannot be supported. 
A very small part of the land is fit for cultivation, 
and the greatest care is taken in cultivating the 
scanty crops. 

The coast of NorAvay is like that of Maine. It has 
many projections, between which there are long, nar- 

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row, and deep indentations, called fiords, A large 
number of islands fringe the coast, some of which are 
nothing more than small, bare rocks. 

As this northland does not supply its people bounti- 
fully with the necessaries of life, they naturally turn 
to the sea for help. Many of the Norwegians are en- 
gaged in fishing and in commerce. Hundreds of years 




Fig. 61. — A fiord on the coast of Norway. 



Photo, hy Howell. 



ago they were brave and hardy seamen, and in their 
curiously carved ships with square sails they made 
w^ar upon the English. You remember that they 
reached the shores of North America long before 
Columbus's voyage. 

Those who spend much of their time upon the sea 
must live near its margin. Then, too, the higher 
parts of Norway are unfit for habitation. All of her 



THE LAND OF FIORDS 117 

cities, and most of her towns, are on the coast at the 
heads of the fiords. 

As most of the people live close to the sea, much 
traveling is done in boats. Every family owns its 
boat. It usually takes less time to row across a 
fiord than it does to travel around it in a cart. People 
go to town, to the home of a neighbor, or perhaps to 
church, in the family boat. Women, as well as men, 
know how to manage a boat. 

The winters on the coast of Norway are not nearly 
so cold as those in our New England states. This is 
because the winds blow from the ocean to the land, 
and the ocean is never very cold. Along the coast 
there is much rainy weather at all seasons. The rain- 
fall amounts in some places to seventy-five inches 
or more per year. On the mountains there is much 
snow. Because of the abundant precipitation, lakes 
and streams are numerous. 

Some of the most wonderful scenery in the world 
is found along the fiords of Norway. The water is 
calm and deep. On either side rise the steep walls 
of rock sometimes to a height of several thousand 
feet. As our boat follows the windings of the fiord, 
every turn presents new wonders. Valleys enter the 
fiord, not on a level with it, but far above. There- 
fore the streams in these tributary valleys plunge over 
precipices to the valley floor. Clouds and mist hang 



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over the lofty walls of the fiord much of the time, so 
that in some cases these falls seem to drop from the 
clouds. 

At the head of each fiord we generally find a small 



,1 ^# ■• 





^»^y 






Fig. 62. — Christiaiiia, Norway. 

tract of level land. Here there is usually a town, 
or possibly only a fishing hamlet. Christiania, the 
capital and largest city, has such a situation. The 
bay is large enough to accommodate much shipping, 
but it is ice-bound for about four months each year. 



TRE LAND OF FIORDS 119 

which is a great disadvantage. Several valleys join 
the fiord on which the capital is situated, and there- 
fore those who are going into or coming out of these 
valleys pass through Christiania. A road leads from 
the capital westward to Trondjhem (trond'yem) and 
another eastward to Stockholm. About half of the 
farming land in the kingdom is tributary to Chris- 
tiania. 

As we enter the harbor we pass several islands which 
were once heavily timbered. The hills and moun- 
tains north of the city have much timber upon their 
slopes, although a great deal has been cut away. 
They also contain mineral wealth. You can under- 
stand now why Christiania is the most important of 
the Norwegian cities. 

One of the most wonderful of the fiords is the Har- 
danger, situated south of the city of Bergen. Its 
walls tower above our boat to a height of nearly a 
mile. Here and there we see a farmhouse, or per- 
haps a little cluster of them, painted red, yellow, or 
white. Near the head of the fiord is one of the most 
beautiful waterfalls in Europe, called Ringdalsfos. 

Following one of the arms of the Hardanger,.our 
boat reaches the city of Bergen. We see at once that 
its chief industry is fishing. Fishing boats are in the 
harbor, and fish are being dried upon the rocks. The 
city is situated upon islands and peninsulas, and is 



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surrounded by mountains. A great deal of rain falls, 
amounting to about seventy inches per year. 

Many of the ships that belong in Bergen are en- 




Copyright hy Brown Bros. 



Fig. 63. — Bergen, Norway. 

gaged in commerce. Some of these take lumber and 
dairy products to Great Britain, and some take fish 
to Italy, Spain, and other countries. Still others are 



THE LAND OF FIORDS 121 

engaged in supplying the city with fibers, fruits, and 
various manufactured goods. 

The valley in which Bergen is situated is about one 
mile wide, but no river flows through it. The streets 
struggle up the steep hillsides, zigzagging back and 
forth so that they may not be too steep for use. Be- 
side the footpaths are iron hand-rails, both as a 
protection, and to help the people in climbing. The 
poorer people live in the higher parts of the city, 
while those who have more means live on the level 
land. 

Continuing our journey northward between the 
islands and the mainland we reach a fiord called Songe. 
For 110 miles we thread this winding passage before 
we reach its head. In places the lofty walls are only 
about one block apart, while in other places they are 
separated by four miles of water. They tower so far 
above us that the fiord seems hardly more than a gash 
cut in the mountains. As we land at the various 
settlements, women and girls come to the boat with 
berries and cherries for sale. 

Still farther to the north on a great fiord is Trond- 
hjem, once the Danish capital. From this point a 
railroad extends southward to Christiania, and another 
southeast to Stockholm, Sweden. Trondhjem is an 
ancient city, having been founded nearly 1000 years 
ago. Not far away are swift mountain streams where 



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electric power is produced. There is also some iron 
mined in the vicinity. 

Near the extreme northern end of the peninsula is 
Hammerfest. This town is far beyond the Arctic 




Copyright bp Brown Bros. 



Fig. 64. — Hammerfest, Norway. 



Circle, yet its harbor is never frozen over. Here the 
summer days are so long that there is scarcely any 
night. In fact, for about two months the sun does 
not disappear at all. At midnight, as well as at mid- 
day, his shining face is visible. Because of this, Nor- 
way has been called " The Land of the Midnight 



THE LAND OF FIORDS 123 

Sun." The same thing is true, however, in any place 
as far north as Hammerfest. 

Lumbering is one of the industries in which the 
people of Norway are engaged. The trees are cut 
and floated down the streams to the fiords, where 
they can be placed upon ships. Norway is one of 
the few countries of Europe that has lumber to sell. 
Along the Songe Fiord are extensive forests, although 
there is more timber in the eastern than in the west- 
ern part of the country. That part of Norway east 
of Bergen and north of Christiania has vast forests. 

As in our northeastern states and Great Lakes re- 
gion, lumbering begins in the fall. The lumbermen 
live in log huts in the forest and for weeks see no 
one but their comrades. In the spring the logs are 
floated down the swollen streams to a lake or fiord. 

The spruce and the fir are the chief kinds of lum- 
ber exported. The birch is very common, and its 
almost white bark lights up the gloomy forest. The 
wood is valuable and the bark is used in tanning 
leather, and as a roof for houses. Over this bark, 
turf is placed. You remember that the early traders 
and trappers in our country made birch-bark canoes. 
About 40 per cent of the exports of Norway are for- 
est products. 

As you have learned, fishing is a very important 
industry in Norway. More than 100,000 people are 



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engaged in catching and handling fish. Cod, mack- 
erel, herring, halibut, and salmon are the most im- 
portant kinds of fish caught. Great quantities of 
codfish are dried on rocks along the coast. The 




Copyright by Broivn Bros, 

Fig. 65. — Fishing throiigh the ice on the coast of Norway. 

halves of the fish are salted, and are turned over 
every few hours during sunny weather. Women and 
children, as well as men, do. this. work. 

The farms are, of course small, and are generally 
worked by hand. The hardy grains are grown, and 



THE LAND OF FIORDS 125 

there are many apple and cherry orchards. The 
length of the summer days is a great advantage to 
all kinds of vegetation. 

In the farming districts the houses are generally 
of logs, sometimes squared into the form of timbers. 
Thick boards are nailed on the outside of the logs. 
The roof, as already stated, is covered with heavy 
birch bark, over which a layer of turf is placed. Many 
times flowers are seen in blossom on the tops of these 
humble homes, so even the poorest people in Norway 
may have roof -gardens. 

Sometimes the house consists of but one large room 
downstairs. This serves as kitchen, dining room, 
living room, and bedroom. Other bedrooms are 
found in the loft above. At one end of this com- 
mon room is a great stone fireplace. In this room 
will also be seen one or more spinning wheels, and 
a hand loom, for the people on the farms still spin 
and weave. The houses are usually painted red, 
yellow, or white. Standing about the dwelling may 
be several small buildings. In one of these we find 
butter, cheese, and other provisions. In another one 
cloth, extra bedding, and clothing are kept. 

Dairying is an important industry, and cattle, sheep, 
and goats are kept upon most of the farms. During 
the winter they must be carefully housed and fed, but 
after the snows have melted in the early summer they 



126 EUROPE 

are driven up to the higher land to be pastured. 
Usually the pastures are too far from the farms to 
make it possible to drive the cattle to and fro daily. 
Some one must remain with the cows to milk them, 
and make the butter and cheese. This work is done 
by the girls and women. About once a week the 
men of the family go up to the log house where 
the dairying is carried on. They carry provisions to 
the women, and carry back the butter and cheese. 

Sometimes you will see wires running up the hill- 
side from the farmhouse at the head of a fiord. If 
we had time to investigate, we should find that these 
wires extend to the dairy house above. Cans of milk, 
as well as butter and cheese, are lowered to the farm- 
house. Wood is sometimes conveyed from the moun- 
tains in the same way. 

The grass cut for the use of the cattle during the 
long winter is gathered with great care. It is cut 
and raked by hand, and not a bit is w^asted. As the 
climate is so damp it is difficult to dry it. The grass 
is therefore spread upon a fencelike arrangement 
several feet high. This enables the air to get at the 
grass, so that it dries more readily than it would on 
the ground. For the same reason sheaves of grain 
are stuck one above another on a long pole. 

The women do much of the work in the hay fields, 
as they do in the dairy. All need to work, and the 



THE LAND OF FIOBBS 127 

women cannot engage in fishing, shipbuilding, and 
lumbering. Tender twigs are cut from the birch and 
other trees and dried. They are fed to the stock dur- 
ing the winter. In Norway the women sometimes 
deliver the mail. 

Like Switzerland, the Land of Fiords has many 
summer visitors. Some of these travel in and out of 
the great gloomy fiords, visiting only the few large 
towns on the coast. Some travel across the country 
by cart, for Norway has splendid roads. The carts 
are two-wheeled vehicles, drawn by stout ponies. In 
this way one can see much of the beautiful scenery 
of the country, the farmhouses, the forests, the 
rushing streams, the waterfalls, and the glaciers. 



CHAPTER XII 

SWEDEN 

As you have already learned, two straits connect 
the North Atlantic and the Baltic seas. These 
straits, which lie to the south of the Scandinavian 
Peninsula, extend into it in the form of a Y turned 
upside down. As you see, Sweden faces the Baltic 
instead of the Atlantic, and this fact has much to do 
with her climate and her commerce. 

Sweden is a little larger than the combined areas 
of New York, Pennsylvania, and the New England 
States, but its population is about the same as that 
of New York City. This small population is due to 
a number of causes. Much of the land is not well 
adapted to agriculture, the climate is severe, forests 
cover about one half of the area, and many people 
have emigrated. 

Because there are so many lakes in Sweden, the 
country is sometimes called ''The Land of the Thou- 
sand Lakes." The largest of these lakes are in Gott- 
land, which is that part of Sweden lying between the 
Cattegat and the Baltic. Lakes Werner and Wetter 

128 



SWEDEN 129 

excel all the others in size, and they are important 
because a canal connects them. Most of the lakes 
were caused by glaciers which once covered the entire 
land, and in the northern part of the country there 
are snow fields and glaciers to-day. 

As in Norway, lumbering is an important industry. 
The forests stretch practically to the Arctic Circle. 
During the winter many of the farmers leave their 
homes to earn a living in the forests, while the 
women and children remain at home and attend to 
the stock. You remember how the logs are floated 
down the rivers in New England. There are many 
rivers in Sweden flowing from the mountains to the 
Baltic Sea. In the spring and early summer the 
melting snows cause floods in these streams, and 
great numbers of logs are then floated down them. 

Because the forests are so extensive, lumber and 
wood pulp are very important exports. The chief 
lumber exporting center is Gefle, situated a little 
north of Stockholm. The chief timber is coniferous 
— pines and firs. The wood is harder than most of 
the wood of the same kind in our country, because 
the short summers cause it to grow very compactly. 
It is therefore durable, and takes a good polish. 

Although much of the land in Sweden cannot be 
cultivated, agriculture is the chief industry of the 
people. Hay, corn, oats, rye, barley, flax, and other 



130 EUBOPE 

crops are grown. The farms are generally small, and 
the women do considerable work in the fields. They 
may often be seen raking up hay or grain, and piling 
it upon frames of wood, or upon the rocks to dry or 
ripen. In many of the country homes flax is still 
spun and woven by hand, and articles of clothing 
made. During the long winters there is much time 
for reading and study. The Swedes are gradually 
leaving the farms and moving into the cities and 
towns. This is because farming is not so profitable 
as industrial work. Only about one half of the total 
population now live in the country. 

In the country the houses are generally made of 
wood. Sometimes they are built of logs with moss 
stu:ffed in between them to keep out the cold. Let 
us enter one of these log houses. It consists of a 
single large room, at one end of which is a fireplace, 
and in it pieces of wood several feet in length are 
crackling. How the flame roars up the chimney, yet 
a few feet from the blaze the room is quite cool. 

In the room are two beds built against one of the 
walls, and arranged one above the other like berths 
in a sleeping car. There are a few chairs and a 
table. On a shelf we see the Bible and a few 
other books. Loaves of rye bread, baked in the 
shape of immense doughnuts, are strung on a pole 
overhead. 



SWEDEN 



131 



Early each morning coffee is served, and about 
nine o'clock breakfast is eaten. Coffee is served 
again before dinner, and once more late in the 
afternoon. People in our country do not feel that 
they have time to drop their work in order to drink 
tea or coffee between meals. 

Stockholm, the capital, is one of the most beautiful 




Fig. 



A view of Stockholm. 



Photo, by Howell. 



cities in the world. It is built upon six islands, and 
is situated partly upon an arm of the sea, and in part 
on the shore of Lake Malar. Fine bridges connect 
the various parts of the city. Being the capital, 
Stockholm is the residence of the king. 

For several months each year ice closes the harbor of 
Stockholm. This is a great disadvantage to commerce. 
The harbor of Gottenborg is always open, however, 



132 EUROPE 

and this city is connected with Stockhohn by rail, and 
serves as its winter port. There is also water com- 
munication with Gottenborg by means of a canal and 
Lakes Werner and Wetter. Stockholm is frequently 
called the " Venice of the North." Can you give the 
reason for this ? Our trade with Sweden is increas- 
ing and Stockholm exports large quantities of fish, 
leather goods, silks, and matches to the United States. 
The people of Sweden naturally import much food, as 
well as cotton, wool, silk, and manufactured goods. 

Those who enter Sweden from the west generally 
land at Gottenborg, so named because it is situated 
upon the Gote River. Although Gottenborg is a 
much smaller city than Stockholm, it is the chief 
port. In the harbor may be seen ships from all 
parts of the world. They bring in foods, fabrics, and 
manufactured goods, and they carry away fish, 
leather, iron, and various other things. 

Gottenborg carries on much of the winter com- 
merce because its port is open. It is quite a manu- 
facturing center also. The Gote Canal is ten feet 
deep and will therefore accommodate ships of consid- 
erable size. It was necessary to construct a large 
number of locks along its course. At the falls of 
TroUhatten much power is developed. 

The markets in this city are very interesting. In 
order to see them at their best we must visit them 



SWEDEN 



133 




134 EUROPE 



early in the morning. Many women with baskets 
upon their arms, as well as buyers for hotel and 




Fig. 68. — Market scene in Gottenborg. 

stores, are bargaining for the day's provisions. Vege- 
tables, berries, fruits, meat, fish, chickens, and groceries 
are displayed. But we are astonished when we dis- 
cover that cloth, ribbons, toilet articles, dishes, books, 
and many other things are shown side by side with 
these articles of food. 

Railroads are not so common in Sweden as they are 
in our country, but they are becoming more numerous. 
Compartment cars are used as they are in the other 
countries of Europe. When you leave the train at 



SWEDEN 135 

a railway station, you will look for a porter, who 
with a hand cart will take your baggage to your 
hotel. Fifty ore, or fourteen cents in our money, is 
considered a fair price. 

In some sections travel is carried on by means of 
carts or stages. At intervals along the road there 
are stations where horses are changed. Travel by 
this means is quite reasonable in price. 

In traveling in Sweden we discover that the people 
as a rule object to ventilation. As the winters are 
so cold double windows are used, and these are 
usually kept closed in summer as well as winter. We 
find the same difficulty everywhere, in the hotels, on 
the trains, in the homes, and in the schools. 

The people of Sweden are noted for their polite- 
ness. Children, as well as grown people, bow when 
they meet a person in the street. When a visitor 
enters a schoolroom, the children rise from their 
seats and say "good morning" in Swedish. Men 
usually remove their hats when they enter a store or 
an office. We find that many of the people speak 
Enghsh, for it is quite commonly taught in the schools. 

In some of the remote country districts the people 
travel many miles to reach church. Some walk, 
some make the journey in two-wheeled carts, and 
some in rowboats. These boats are in some cases 
large enough to carry fifty or seventy-five persons. 



136 



EUROPE 



We notice that many of the people in these districts 
dress quite differently from the people in the cities. 




Fig. 69. — National Swedish costume. 



The skirts of the women are decorated with stripes 
that extend horizontally, and they wear caps or 
kerchiefs upon their heads. When at work in the 
fields the men commonly wear a leathern apron to 
protect their clothes. The mothers while at work in 
the fields often carry their babies in slings upon 
their backs, or hang the sling to the limb of a tree, 
where the little one is gently rocked by the breezes. 



SWEDEN 137 

We have very pleasant memories of Sweden as we 
sail away from it. We hope that we may again 
visit its beautiful capital, and see its mountains, 
lakes, streams, and falls. The people both in city 
and country have been kind and courteous to us, and 
when we meet in our own country those who have 
come from this northland, we shall feel somewhat 
acquainted with them, and with their native land so 
far away. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE EMPIKE OF THE CZARS 

The great Russian Empire stretches from the 
shores of the Baltic on the west, to the Pacific Ocean 
on the east. To travel across the empire in this di- 
rection would require a journey of about 5000 miles. 
The icebergs of the Arctic crowd along its northern 
coast, while in the extreme southern part, cotton is 
grown extensively. To this one nation belongs about 
one sixth of the land surface of the globe. 

Russia in Europe is much smaller than Russia in 
Asia, or Siberia, as it is called, but it has about three 
times as many people. It is largely a great plain 
similar to the plain in the central part of North 
America. Like our plain, a part of it is drained 
northward and a part southward. For hundreds of 
miles there is not a mountain, and not even a high 
hill to break the levelness of the land. 

Because the country is so flat, the rivers flow 
slowly, and are navigable. As the winters are long 
and cold, the rivers that flow northward are blocked 
with ice for several months each year. The great 
Volga, which flows southward, empties into the Cas- 

138 



THE EMPIRE OF THE CZARS 139 

plan Sea, and is therefore not so valuable as it would 
otherwise be. 

A part of Russia is below the level of the ocean. 
In fact the surface of the Caspian Sea is 85 feet be- 
low the ocean level. The land around it is low and 
sandy, and were the level of the Black Sea to rise 
25 feet, it would be connected with the Caspian. Al- 
though this sea has no outlet, its waters are not so 
salty as those of the ocean. This is because large 
volumes of water are constantly flowing from the 
sea into the depressions which surround it. By this 
means much salt is carried from the Caspian. 

Much fishing is carried on in the Caspian Sea, and 
quantities of fish are shipped northward on the Volga. 
On the western shore of the sea a great quantity of 
petroleum is produced. This is shipped from the 
city of Baku to cities farther north. There is an oil 
field on the east shore of the Black Sea also. There 
is thus considerable commerce upon the Caspian Sea. 

As the Russian plain is so low and flat much of it 
is covered with water during the spring and early 
summer. At this season the roads are so muddy that 
it is almost impossible to use them. In winter the 
ground is frozen solidly and covered with snow. It is 
then that most traveling is done. Loads can be 
hauled on sledges easily and rapidly. In the far 
north the reindeer is used, while in the central part of 



140 



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the country horses are common. In the south a 
horse and a camel may frequently be seen hitched 
together. The tarantass is a heavy carriage, shaped 
a little like a boat. It is often drawn by three or 




Fig. 70. 



Copyright hy Brown Bros. 

A Eussian tarantass. 



even four horses hitched abreast. As the rig has no 
springs, and sometimes no seats, riding is not very 
pleasant. 

Of course Russia has railways, but they are not so 
numerous as they are in our country. The great 
Siberian Railroad extends entirely across the empire. 
It would seem strange to you to be compelled to 
carry your own bedding and provisions if you took 



THE EMPIRE OF THE CZARS 141 

a long railway journey. That is what people in 
Russia generally have to do, for only the very finest 
trains fnrnish these things. 

Most of the people of Russia live in the country, 
and nearly all of them own land. What then must 
be the leading occupation ? Most of the farms are 
quite small, averaging only three or four acres each, 
although there are some immense estates. Not very 
long ago the Russian farmers w^ere practically slaves. 
They were known as serfs, and were bought and sold 
with the land. In 1861 the serfs, about 50,000,000 
in number, were freed, and the land was divided. 

Let us visit the home of a Russian farmer. His 
house, which is almost always built of wood, he 
calls his izha. It is constructed of logs, and the 
chinks between them are filled with moss. Some- 
times boards are nailed to the logs both inside and 
out. The solid earth is usually the only floor, and 
the roof is thatched with straw. The house is built 
upon an artificial mound of earth in order to escape 
some of the dampness of the ground. 

There are probably but three rooms in the izba. 
In one tools and provisions are stored. One 
serves as kitchen and dining room, and the third 
is the bedroom. You have never before seen a 
stove like this one. It is built of bricks over which 
tiles have been placed. You notice that it is between 



142 



EUBOPE 



the kitchen and the bedroom, so that it can warm 
both, and that it reaches almost to the ceiling. 
Wood is the fuel, and you may be sure that this 
stove requires a great deal. 




Fig. - 7l . — Russian peasants. 

The fire is not kept burning all of the time, how- 
ever, not even in the winter. The heat is not al- 
lowed to rush directly up the chimney, but is led 
through a system of pipes to all parts of the rooms. 
When this immense stove has become hot it will 
give off heat for hours after the fire has gone out. 

The beds in this home are also a surprise to you. 
They are platforms of wood built close to the stove 
so that those who occupy them may be as warm 
as possible. Sometimes people sleep on top of the 



THE EMPIRE OF THE CZARS 143 

stove when the fire has gone out. The windows 
are double on account of the cold, and are never 
opened during the winter. There is no running 
water, no gas or electric light, no telephone, no 
books or magazines, and no easy chairs. Such a 
home you would consider rather dreary. 

The summer is the time for work. There is not 
an hour to spare, for the long terrible winter will 
come swiftly and crops must be raised. During the 
summer the schools are closed so that the children 
may work in the fields. The days are very long, 
and therefore vegetation grows rapidly. Women 
as well as men work in the fields. Rye, barley, 
wheat, oats, corn, flax, and hemp are grown in the 
colder parts, and tobacco and cotton in the south. 
Russia is one of the greatest wheat producing coun- 
tries in the world, and great quantities are exported. 
As Russia is so vast in extent, there is sometimes 
a failure of crops and suffering in one section and 
an abundance in others. 

Close to the Arctic Ocean the climate is so severe 
that trees will not grow. Farther south there is 
a great forest belt which extends east and west 
nearly across the empire. Much of this forest area 
is so far from cities and railroads that it has not 
been touched. In the portions more favorably 
situated, a great deal of timber has been cut. 



144 



EUBOPE 



The winter days are short, and the nights long. 
Not much work can be done out of doors, but there 
is much that can be done in the house. The men 

make harnesses and tools and 
do repairing, while the women 
spin and knit. 

The Russians generally 
have a light breakfast. This 
consists of tea and rolls, and 
sometimes jam. They are 
very fond of tea and all day 
long hot water is kept in the 
samovar. This is made of 
a combination of copper and 
zinc and has the appearance 
of gold. The samovar is often 
very beautiful in design, and 
holds from twelve to thirty 
glasses of water. A long tube 
extends to the bottom of the samovar. This is kept 
filled with burning charcoal. No matter at what hour 
a guest steps into the house, the hot water is ready, 
and tea is quickly served. 

Water is obtained from a well having a frame or 
curb of stone or wood. A few feet from the well a 
long pole is fastened to a post. To one end. of this 
pole a bucket is attached. A stone or a bag filled 




GopyrigM by Brown Bros. 

Fig. 72. — A Samovar. 



THE EMPIRE OF THE CZARS - 145 

with sand is tied to the other end. When the weight 
is hfted, the bucket is lowered into the well, and filled 
with water. By pulling down the weight, the pail is 
lifted out of the well. 



CHAPTER XIV 

SOME RUSSIAN CITIES 

If we visit but two or three cities in European 
Russia, St. Petersburg must, of course, be one of 
these. This is because it is the capital, and is the 
largest and most beautiful of the cities of Russia. 
Although a large city, St. Petersburg is not old. It 
was founded in 1703, and made the capital in 1712. 

At that time the Emperor of Russia was Peter the 
Great. He saw that his nation was in many ways 
behind the other nations of western Europe. Partly 
because of this, and partly because he needed to watch 
the Swedes, whom he had just conquered, Peter moved 
his capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg. 

The Neva, a broad stream, winds its way across 
the delta which for hundreds of years it has been 
building. There are several islands in the marshes 
near the river's mouth, and upon these a part of the 
city was built. It was a difficult task to build a city 
here, but Peter the Great did not mind difficulties. 
His word was law, and so workmen came at his bid- 
ding from all parts of Russia. 

In spite of the marshy ground and the miserable 

146 



SOME BUSSIAN CITIES 147 

climate, the new capital grew rapidly. In one year 
30,000 houses were erected. Some of these were 
beautiful palaces. As there is neither timber nor 
stone here, all building material had to be brought in. 

Bridges connect the different islands and span the 
Neva. Most of these are bridges of boats that are 
removed each winter. The St. Nicholas Bridge is a 
great structure of iron and granite. 

There are many wide streets in the capital. The 
finest of these, and one of the most beautiful in the 
world, is the Nevski Prospekt It is four miles long 
and 130 feet broad. On either side are palaces, 
churches, and business houses, while shade trees add 
much to its beauty. 

One of the great buildings of St. Petersburg is the 
Winter Palace. This is the home of the Czar or Em- 
peror for a considerable part of each year. During 
the winter there are sometimes as many as 6000 
people living in this one building. In one of the 
rooms the crown jewels are kept. They are very 
magnificent, and are guarded night and day. 

The most beautiful of the many cathedrals is St. 
Isaac's, but as the ground is so low it does not show 
off to the best advantage. Its great dome gleams 
in the sunlight like gold. Fine trees surround the 
cathedral. 

In the winter the Neva is frozen, and ships no 



148 



EUROPE 



longer move to and fro upon it. This condition exists 
for about four months each yea^r, and is a great dis- 




Copyright by Broiun Bros, 

Fig. 73. — St. Petersburg from the dome of St. Isaac's Cathedral. 

advantage to commerce. Its icy surface then becomes 
a road for sledges and sleighs, and -many skaters glide 
merrily over it. 

The cabs which we see upon the streets are called 



SOME RUSSIAN CITIES 



149 



droshkies. They have small wheels, and usually seat 
but one or two passengers. An arch, somewhat like 
a half hoop, is fastened to the shafts, and extends 







i 








i 


Mm^'^^^-^ 







Photo, hy FrencJi. 



Fig. 74. — A Russian droshky. 



over the horse's neck. Sometimes a bell is attached 
to the arch. 

From St. Petersburg we travel to Moscow. On 
our way we pass the only high hills that rise from 
the plains of western Russia. These are known as 
the Valdai Hills. Everywhere there stretches the 
vast level plain which gives the country a monotonous 
appearance. While we are yet at some distance from 



150 EUROPE 

Moscow we can see the domes and spires of her many 
churches gleaming in the sunshine. At the sight of 
this magnificence the peasants often fall upon their 
knees, for Moscow is spoken of as " Holy Mother 
Moscow." 

From any lofty tower in the city one can see a large 
number of spires and bulblike domes rising above the 
other buildings. A single church or cathedral usually 
has several of these odd appearing domes, which are 
generally gilded. The most magnificent of the hun- 
dreds of churches in Moscow is the Church of the 
Saviour. It is of cream-colored stone, built in the 
form of a Greek cross. There are four towers, capped 
by domes and crosses, while from the center rises an 
enormous gilded dome. This building can be seen 
from all parts of the city. 

The city of Moscow is built upon the Moskwa 
River, and this gives it its name. Many of the people 
here, as in other parts of Eussia, can neither read nor 
write. Because of this, some of the signs would seem 
very curious to you. On the front of a shoe store you 
will see a large sign in the form of a shoe, and this 
the people can read very easily. 

Moscow, like Vienna, is built in the form of one 
circle outside of another. As the city outgrew the 
wall which surrounded it in the early days, another 
was built beyond. Within the inner wall is the 



SOME RUSSIAN CITIES 



151 



Kremlin, the great fort of the city. Here also the 
Treasury and the Imperial Palace are located. 

Outside the Kremlin is a church most wonderful in 
architecture and in coloring. It is known as the 




Fig. 75. — Scene in Moscow. 

Church of St. Basil. From all parts of the building 
rise the gleaming domes, while a large number of colors 
have been used in painting it. These lines will give you 
an idea of the appearance of this city when the rays 
of the setting sun fall upon its wonderful buildings. 

^' Oh the splendor of the city 
When the sun is in the west ! 
Ruddy gold on spire and belfry, 
Gold on Moskwa's placid breast ; 



152 EUBOPE 

Till the twilight, soft and somber, 
Falls on wall and street and square, 
And the domes and towers in shadow 
Stand like silent monks in prayer." 

Almost directly east of Moscow is Nijni Novgorod, 
one of the most interesting cities in the Russian Em- 
pire. It is situated where the Oka flows into the 
Volga. In earlier times much buying and selling 
was done at fairs. To these fairs, held in some con- 
venient place, people brought whatever they had to 
sell, and those who wished to buy attended the fairs 
also. Many goods were exchanged, instead of being 
sold for monev. As Russia has few railroads, and so 
many of her people live in the country, much business 
is still done at fairs. 

Novgorod is built upon bluffs that rise from the 
river, but on the east side of the Volga there is low, 
flat land. Here is held the most wonderful fair in 
the world. It opens on July 28 th of each year, and 
closes in September. To this fair come people from 
all parts of the empire and even from other countries. 
From Siberia come caravans with furs, diamonds, and 
other precious stones, and various kinds of iron goods. 
Woolen and linen goods, nails, hardware, and farming 
implements, come from the western part of Russia. 
Manufactured goods of various kinds are sent from 
Great Britain, France, and Germany. Persia sends 



SOME RUSSIAN CITIES 



153 



precious stones, fruits, carpets, and silks. Cot- 
ton is shipped from Bokhara, while China sends- tea. 



ff ~ ^' *' 



3^ 



if 



mmi 



fi»*-'*'^ 







Fig. 76. — The great bell market in the fair, N^ijni Novgorod. 

In order to reach the fair grounds from Nijni Nov- 
gorod, we cross the Volga on a bridge of boats. Dur- 
ing the time when the fair is open there is really 



154 EUBOPE 

quite a city, the population amounting to three or four 
thousand. The same merchant generally occupies the 
same bazaar year after year. The fair is managed 
by a committee composed of business men from the 
most important cities of Russia. 

There are hotels and churches on the fair grounds. 
There is a water supply, a fire department, and police 
protection. A canal surrounding the grounds helps 
to protect the buildings against fire. As the number 
of railroads increases, this wonderful fair becomes less 
important, but the amount of business done in 1909 
amounted to $250,000,000. Many goods are now 
bought and sold by sample. 

When the fair season comes to its close, the stores, 
churches, and restaurants are closed, the bridge of 
boats is removed, and the merchants start on their 
long homeward journey. The streets which have 
been thronged with people from many nations will 
be dark by night and silent by day for nearly a year. 



CHAPTER XY 

SPAIN 

In ancient times people called the narrow strait 
that connects the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediter- 
ranean Sea the Strait of Hercules. The rock of 
Gibraltar on the north, and Ceuta on the south, were 
the Pillars of Hercules. For a long time the Pillars 
of Hercules were thought to stand on the western 
margin of the world. At the east end of the strait 
the distance from Europe to Africa is but fifteen 
miles, and on clear days one can see from continent to 
continent. 

The Iberian Peninsula is made up of Spain and 
Portugal. Its area is about the same as that of the 
state of Texas. Water washes the peninsula on all 
sides except where the lofty Pyrenees separate it from 
France. In the central part this system is more than 
10,000 feet in height. No railroads cross the moun- 
tains, but one extends around either extremity of the 
system. You see, then, that the Pyrenees are a great 
obstacle to communication by land between Spain and 
France. 

Spain is a great plateau with numerous mountain 
ranges crossing it. The westerly winds deposit con- 

155 



156 EUROPE 

siderable moisture along the western coast, leaving 
the interior quite dry. Because of these conditions 
Spain is not so well adapted to agriculture as are 
some countries. The steepness of the slopes has 
caused the rivers to cut deep trenches, especially in 
their upper courses. On this account irrigation is, 
in some districts, difficult. In spite of these discour- 
agements, agriculture is the leading industry. 

Being almost surrounded by water, the peninsula 
has a mild climate, especially on the eastern and south- 
ern slopes. The crops vary according to the tem- 
perature and rainfall. Wheat, grapes, olives, oranges, 
lemons, figs, pomegranates, and dates are grown. 
There are also many mulberry trees, on the leaves of 
which the silkworm feeds. 

Along the coast of the Bay of Biscay there is some 
iron mined. A part of this is exported from Bilbao 
to Great Britain, because it is very fine in quality 
and can be used in the manufacture of cutlery. 
Great mercury deposits exist a little south of the cen- 
ter of the plateau, near Almaden. Spain produces 
about one fourth of the world's supply of copper, 
most of which comes from the southern part. Besides 
these minerals, lead, silver, sulphur, and salt are found. 

Salt making is the chief industry around the Bay 
of Cadiz. At high tide water is led to depressions 
called basins, where it partly evaporates. Through 



SPAIN 



157 



narrow channels the water then passes to shallower 
pans where crystallization takes place. The salt col- 




Copyright By Brown Bros. 

Fig. 77. — The quay and new Custom House of Barcelona. 

lects on the bottom of the basins, and is scooped up 
by means of wooden shovels. Donkeys carry off the 
salt, which is placed in great heaps and left for the 
autumn rains to purify. 



158 EUROPE 

Let us board a train in the French capital and jour- 
ney to Spain. We pass around the east end of the 
Pyrenees and at the boundary between France and 
Spain we find that we are obliged to change cars. 
This is because Spanish railways are about one foot 
wider than the raih^oads of other European countries. 

On the sheltered coastal plain south of the moun- 
tains stands Barcelona. It is an attractive city, 
having a fine harbor, and is the great cotton manu- 
facturing center. The climate is delightful. From 
the shore a beautiful street known as the Rartible leads 
up to the city. Auto-buses will carry us about for a 
fare of two cents. 

Tortosa is near the mouth of the Ebro, the only large 
Spanish river flowing into the Mediterranean. Here 
we see wine carried and sold in pigskin bottles or 
sacks. West of the city is Montserrat, believed to 
have been the home of the Holy Grail. There is con- 
siderable low land in the basin of the Ebro, and the 
river is used extensively for irrigating. At its mouth 
a delta of considerable area has grown. 

Valencia lies farther to the south. It is on the 
coastal plain at the mouth of Guadalquivir River. 
The walls which surround the city were built hundreds 
of years ago. A horse car takes us to an old gate 
which is guarded by two great towers. In the oldest 
part of Valencia the streets are narrow and crooked. 



SPAIN 159 

Valencia is an important seaport, and is surrounded by 
a very fertile region. 

There are many towers and belfries in the city, 
and from some of these we obtain fine views of Va- 
lencia and the surrounding country. Much of the 
land is marshy, and upon this rice is grown. As you 
know, rice requires a great deal of water, and as the 
rainfall in this part of Spain is not heavy, the land 
is irrigated. The farmers who tend the rice fields 
live in small thatched huts called Cabanas. 

On the higher land in the vicinity of Valencia there 
are orchards and gardens. Some of the orange and 
lemon groves are worth as much as one thousand 
dollars per acre. Fruit is exported from Valencia, 
some of which reaches the United States. 

In the central part of Spain the country is quite 
bleak and desolate. The rainfall is very light, and 
there is little timber. The summers are hot, and 
the winters are cold, for this region is far removed 
from the ocean. Many sheep are pastured upon 
the hills. 

One would not think this part of Spain a desirable 
location for the capital, yet here it is. Madrid is 
situated on the Manzanares River, a tributary of the 
Tagus. So scanty is the rainfall that the river is 
dry a part of the year. Here, long ago, Philip II 
built a palace called the Escurial. It cost an 



160 



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immense sum of money. It is now used as a burial 
place for the rulers of the country, a library, and a 
picture gallery. This gallery is said to be one of 
the finest in the world. Looking northward from 




Copyrif/ht Inj Brown Bros. 

Fig. 78. — A procession passing through the streets of Madrid. 

the palace, we see the lofty peaks of the Guadarrama 
Mountains. 

During the middle of the day people take a rest, 
called a siesta. This usually lasts a couple of hom-s. 
During this period little business is done. We notice 
also that women often do their laundry work in the 
stream, and that goats are driven about the city and 
milked in front of the homes of the customers. 



SPAIN 161 

On Sunday afternoons thousands of people attend 
the bull fights. These are held in a great circular 
inclosure that will seat 15,000 persons. The ring, 
which is in the center of the building, is surrounded 
by a high wall. 

The bull is admitted by means of a gate or door. 
In the ring are gayly dressed riders and others on 
foot whose business it is to fight the animal. The 
riders, or picador es, carry short spears. When the 
rider is in dangerous quarters, one of the footmen 
attracts the attention of the bull by waving a scarlet 
blanket, or perhaps another wounds him by throwing 
short darts into his body. Let us each help to bring 
about the day when no one will be able to get en- 
joyment from seeing any form of life tormented. 

A short distance southwest of Madrid, on the bank 
of the Tagus, is Toledo, a former capital of Spain. 
It is an ancient and a beautiful city, but has fallen 
somewhat into decay. The city is built upon a ter- 
raced hillside rising from the river. The streets are 
narrow and crooked, as are the streets of most very 
old cities. 

In the basin of the Guadalquivir we find many 
evidences of the splendor of Moorish days in Spain. 
One thousand years ago Cordoba was a great city. 
It was the first city in Europe to have paved streets, 
and its university and library were famous. About 



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the close of the eighth century a wonderful mosque 
was built in Cordoba. It is said that its floors were 
of silver, and that gold and precious stones covered 
the walls. A cathedral now occupies the ground 
upon which the mosque stood. 




rhotn. hy French. 

Fig. 79. — Boy bringing vegetables into Cordoba. 

From Cordoba southward we find the great olive 
growing section of Spain. Except in the sheltered 
valley of the Ebro, olives are not grown in northern 
Spain. No other country produces so many olives. 
Picking begins about September 15, and continues 
until December. The fruit is gathered in baskets 
holding about one half bushel each, and taken to the 
pickling factories. Much of the fruit used for pick- 
ling is picked green. 



SPAIN 



163 







At the pickling fac- 
tory the olives are 
washed and then 
placed in large vats in 
which there is a soda 
solution. Fresh water 
is then run through the 
vats to wash out the 
soda, after which the 
olives are placed in 
hogsheads of brine and 
left there for a month 
or two. Women then 
grade the fruit and it 
is put up in bottles of 
brine and is ready for 
the market. 

When olives are ripe 
they are almost black 
in color and have the 
appearance of being 
very luscious. They 
are exceedingly bitter, 
however. This is the reason why both green and ripe 
olives have to be soaked in brine and thoroughly 
washed before they are fit to eat. 

From the ripe olives, olive oil is made. Some- 




FiG. 80. 



Photo, hy Hoivell. 

A Citizen of Granada. 



164 EUBOPE 

times the olives are crushed by hand, and sometimes 
by machinery. After crushing, the pulp is put into 
a press from which the liquid runs into tanks. The 
oil rises to the top and is drawn off. The oil is 
usually shipped either to France or Italy, where it is 
put up for the market. Much of it is exported to 
the United States. 

In the beautiful mountain valley of La Vega, 
guarded on the south by the snow-crowned Sierras, 
lies Granada. This was the last stronghold of the 
Moors. Two years before America was discovered, 
Ferdinand defeated Boabdil, the Moorish king, and 
compelled him to leave the city. It was here that 
Isabella secured the money which made Columbus's 
voyage of discovery possible. 

On the foothills overlooking the valley is the 
Alhambra or "red palace." Its construction required 
100 years. The building is plain on the outside, but 
was wonderfully beautiful within. Every court and 
large room had its marble fountain where cool water 
flowed. The Court of Lions was one of the most 
beautiful rooms. At the Gate of Justice, the entrance 
to the Alhambra, sat the Moorish ruler to hear com- 
plaints, and to administer justice to his subjects. 

Although the Alhambra is largely in ruins to-day, 
we can form an idea of its beauty in the time of 
the Moors. It is no wonder that Boabdil wept as 




Photo, by Howell, 



Fig. 81. — Court of Lions in the Alhambra. 



166 EUROPE 

he looked for the last time at the fertile valley and 
the palace he loved so well. 

Let us enter the Strait of Gibraltar. You remem- 
ber that the passage which separates the two con- 
tinents is very narrow. It is no longer regarded 
as leading from the Mediterranean to a mysterious 
unknown sea. Every day ships pass out through 
this doorway bound for North America, South Amer- 
ica, Africa, or some other part of the world. 

On the north side of the strait the great rock of 
Gibraltar lifts its head to a height of 1408 feet above 
the sea. It is the seaward end of a peninsula, the 
rest of which is quite low. Because of this, the rock, 
as viewed from the sea, looks like an island. The 
rock contains a number of caverns, the entrance to 
one of which is 1000 feet above the water. Pas- 
sages lead downward from chamber to chamber, but 
on account of foul air it has not been found possible 
to reach the lowest of these. 

The rock of Gibraltar is of especial interest to us 
because it is the strongest fortress in the world. The 
peninsula belongs to Spain, but if you will look closely 
at the map you will see that Gibraltar belongs to 
the English. For centuries its possession has been 
fought for, but in 1704 the English captured it, and 
they have held it ever since. The town, which 
rises on the east side of the bay, consists of but three 



sPAm 169 

parallel streets. There are no wells, and so rain- 
water must be stored. The water which falls upon 
the roofs of the houses is led into tanks and reservoirs. 
Very little can be grown upon the peninsula, and 
the people depend almost entirely upon the outside 
world for food. You see that it is not a very desir- 
able place for a home. 

To the westward of the mouth of the Guadalquiver 
is Palos, a fishing village. There was great excite- 
ment here one August day more than 400 years ago. 
Many people stood upon the shore and watched three 
small ships sail out of the bay and slowly disappear, 
beyond the western horizon. There were some who 
believed that they would never return, and there 
were few who thought that the expedition would 
be a success. But standing upon the deck of one 
of the ships was a man who had faith ; a faith that 
could not be- shaken by ridicule, scorn, or threat. 
The faith of this brave admiral led him steadily on 
to the shores of America. 



CHAPTER XVI 

PORTUGAL 

Although Portugal and Spain are parts of the 
same peninsula, they are quite different in some 
ways. As you have learned, much of Spain is quite 
dry, but Portugal is well watered. It faces the 
Atlantic, and the moist winds which blow from 
the ocean deposit much moisture as they pass over 
the country. Because of the abimdant rainfall, there 
are forests and streams, while on the eastern side of 
the mountains we find the almost treeless plateau of 
Spain, where the streams are few and small. 

The Cantabrian Mountains, which extend along the 
northwestern coast of Spain, send some of their spurs 
and ranges into northern Portugal. This section is 
drained by the Douro River, which has its sources in 
Spain. This is the most navigable of the rivers of 
Portugal, as they are for the most part too swift for 
navigation. 

In this northern part of the country agriculture is 
highly developed. The farms are generally small, 
but they are carefully tilled, and are usually owned 

170 



POETUGAL 



171 



by those who work them. The finest vineyard 
section is north of the Donro. Oxen are much used 




Fig. 84. — The harbor of Oporto. 



Copyright by Brown Bros. 



on the farms, and to some extent in the towns and 
cities. They draw the plows, which are often nothing 
but crooked sticks of wood with iron tips. Carts, 
having two wheels made of solid wood, are used to 
carry produce. On the yoke between the oxen there 
is often a board which the peasant has carved with 
great care. 

Oporto, which means " the port," is situated close 
to the mouth of the Douro River. The river winds 



172 EUROPE 

through the city, which is built upon the steep hills 
that rise from the water. The buildings are very 
picturesque with their roofs of red tile and their 
blue, buff, or white paint. In the lower part of the 
city the streets are wider and straighter than they 
are in the hilly districts. There are now electric cars 
which carry passengers up and down the slopes. 

There is considerable manufacturing in Oporto. 
Cotton, silk, linen, and woolen goods are made. There 
are also foundries, sugar refineries, and glove facto- 
ries. The people are skilled workers in gold and silver 
also. The river is about 600 feet wide where it 
flows through the city, and a railroad bridge spans it. 

South of the Douro is the Mondego River. This is 
the only stream of any considerable size that belongs 
wholly to Portugal. The scenery along this river is 
very beautiful. On the river is the city of Coimbra, 
where the rainfall averages about sixteen feet per 
year. 

The central part of Portugal is drained by the 
Tagus River. Its sources are on the Spanish plateau 
east of Madrid. The Tagus is of very little value 
for navigation. At its mouth is Lisbon, the capital, 
which extends for several miles along the banks. It 
has a fine harbor and carries on considerable com- 
merce. The climate is very mild, and snow seldom 
falls, although it can be seen upon the mountain tops. 



PORTUGAL 



173 



The land and sea breezes, which blow regularly, help 
to make the climate delightful. 

Like Oporto, Lisbon is built upon the hills which 
rise from the river. From a great public square on 




Copyright J>y Brown Bros. 

Fig. 85. — Gardens in front of the palace at Lisbon. 

the Tagus, two parallel streets, the " street of gold " 
and the " street of silver," run to the center of the 
city.. In the parks and gardens are roses, camellias, 
and many other flowers, as well as fruit trees. A 
Portuguese proverb says, " Who has not seen Lisbon 
has not seen a thing of beauty." 

In the central and southern part of Portugal much 
fruit is produced. For a long time oranges have been 
exported from this country. There are also figs, 
cherries, peaches, pears, and almonds. Grapevines 
are often trained to poplar and elm trees. 

Portugal is not visited by so many travelers as are 
most European countries. This is partly because of 



174 



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lack of railroads. The customs in Portugal have 
changed very slowly, and this is in part due to the 

fact that the 
people do not 
frequently 
come in contact 
with the people 
of other coun- 
tries. Old cus- 
t o m s and 
costumes make 
travel in Portu- 
gal very inter- 
esting. 

Women do 
much work out 
of doors. They help load and unload the ships in the 
harbors, bearing their burdens upon their heads. They 
generally carry their loads in large, boat-shaped bas- 
kets. In both city and country women and girls may 
be seen carrying jars of water upon their heads or 
washing clothes in some stream. They usually wear 
bright colored handkerchiefs over their shoulders. 
The men very often wear a stocking-like cap with a tas- 
sel, and sometimes a bright colored sash about the waist. 
Many colored people are seen in Portugal because 
for a long time slavery existed here. The Portuguese 




Copyright by Brown 

Fig. 86. — A vender in Portugal. 



PORTUGAL 175 

owned slaves long before they were introduced into 
America. 

Portugal was once a very important nation. Her 
navigators sailed to all parts of the world;, and she 
had many colonies. The great country of Brazil, 
about as large as the United States, once belonged to 
her. The loss of this rich possession was a serious 
blow to Portugal. She now owns extensive posses- 
sions in Africa, and in addition the Azores, Madeira, 
and the Cape Verde Islands, and Macao in Asia. 

For many ^^ears there has been much discontent in 
Portugal. The people have been heavily taxed, and 
the nation owes a large debt. In 1910 an uprising 
occurred. An attack was made upon the Royal 
Palace in Lisbon and the young king was obliged 
to flee. The people quickly proclaimed a republic. 
Let us hope that the Portuguese will be happy and 
prosperous and their new form of government a 
success. 



CHAPTER XVII 

SUNNY ITALY 

Constructing roads in very mountainous countries 
is difficult and expensive. Because of this, roads fol- 
low valleys as far as possible. You remember how 
roads follow the valleys in the Appalachians and in 
our western mountains, while on the prairies and the 
western plains less attention is paid to them. 

For many centuries the valley of the Rhone has 
been an important route of travel. It connected 
Italy and countries farther east with western 
Europe. A railroad now follows the windings of the 
Rhone as it rushes through its mountain-walled 
valley. Our train climbs steadily up from the shores 
of Lake Geneva, and finally it darts into the black- 
ness of the Simplon Tunnel. For more than twelve 
miles we follow this burrow under the lofty Alps. 
When we once more reach the outer world we are in 
Italy. Years of labor were required to construct this 
great tunnel. 

Formerly only bridle paths and carriage roads 
crossed the Alps. One of these roads is a little to the 

176 



SUNNY ITALY 



17T 




178 EUROPE 

south of the Simplon Tunnel. In two places near the 
western end of the tunnel it is directly over our heads. 
It is a very beautiful drive, but of course the trip takes 
much longer than it does by train. 

As we look from the train on coming out of the 
tunnel, we find that we are again in a river valley. 
It leads us down the steep southern slope of the Alps 
to beautiful Lago Maggiore, a long narrow body of 
water, the basin of which was formed by glacial 
action. Lago is the Italian for lake ; and maggiore 
means chief or principal. As Garda Lake is larger 
than Maggiore, the name is not appropriate. 

And now we are in the valley of the Po and 
" Sunny Italy." It is a plain, on the north of which 
rise the snow-crowned Alps. On the west the valley 
is separated from France by the Alps, while the 
Apennines extend southward through the peninsula. 
The valley of the Po is thus sheltered from cold 
winds while the waters of the Mediterranean temper 
its climate. 

The moisture-bearing winds from the Mediterranean 
are chilled on coming in contact with the Alps, and 
much rain falls on their south slope. In spite of this, 
we see irrigating ditches on every hand, for great 
quantities of rice are grown, and this crop requires 
a great deal of water. You remember how the rice 
fields are flooded in our Southern states. 



SUNNY ITALY 



1T9 




180 EUROPE 

The rivers which flow from the Alps furnish much 
power as well as water for irrigating. This is of 
great value to the people, for Italy has little coal. 
Electric energy is developed along some of the 
streams, and in the Po valley more manufacturing is 
done than in any other part of Italy. 

As the land which the Po drains is so very level, 
the river cannot carry to the sea all of the sediment 
which its tributaries bring to it. At its mouth it has 
for ages been building a delta into the Adriatic Sea. 
So much material has been deposited upon its bed 
that, in the lower course of the stream, it is higher 
than the land on either side. In order to check 
floods, levees have been constructed from Cremona 
to the mouth of the Po. Some of these were built 
before America was discovered. 

The plain drained by the Po is a very fertile 
agricultural region. Wheat and corn are produced 
extensively, and as you have already learned, rice 
is grown on the lowlands. The mild climate favors 
fruit raising, while the mulberry tree flourishes. 
Upon its leaves great numbers of silkworms are fed. 
We see less farming machinery used than in the 
United States. Often the pay of the farm laborers 
does not amount to more than twenty-five cents per day. 

Because of its mild climate and fertile soil the Po 
valley is densely populated. The map shows you 



182 



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SUNNY ITALY 



183 



that the cities are numerous. Near the western end 
of the basin stands Turin on the bank of the River 
Po. Passes through the 
mountains connect it 
with France on the 
west and the city of 
Genoa on the south. 
This gives Turin a 
great commercial ad- 
vantage. It was a 
large and an important 
city hundreds of years 
ago. Turin is to-day 
one of the beautiful 
cities of Europe. 

Milan has a situation 
similar to that of 
Turin. Eoads lead 
northward to the passes 
over the Alps^ south- 
ward to the port of 
Genoa, and westward to France. One of the great 
cathedrals of the world is located here. The city is 
in the midst of a fine farming country, and it manu- 
factures much silk. 

On the narrow coastal plain, near the western end 
of the Apennines, stands the city of Genoa. The 




Fig. 91. — The tower of Pisa. 



184 



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Photo, liy Howell. 

Fig. 92. — A tower in Sienna, Italy. 



plain is not 
very fertile, 
but Genoa is 
an important 
port because it 
is connected 
with the valley 
of the Po by 
several roads. 
Many ships are 
built in the 
harbor, and 
silk, lace, jew- 
elry, metal 
work, and 
macaroni are 
manufactured. 
Here, about 
450 years ago, 
the discoverer 
of America 
was born, and 
his statue 
stands in the 
city. 

A railroad, 
built upon the 



SUNNY ITALY 185 

coastal plain, takes us to Florence, the " City of 
Flowers." It is situated upon the Arno River, sur- 
rounded by hills covered with olive groves. Upon 
one of these hills lived the astronomer Galileo, who 
invented the telescope in 1630. This wonderful in- 
strument made it possible for people to study the 
heavens as they had never been able to study them 
before. Florence was the home of many great 
sculptors and artists, and its galleries, museums, and 
beautiful buildings are of great interest to tourists. 

Pisa, near the mouth of the Arno, is one of the 
beautiful old Italian cities. Near its great cathedral 
stands a marble belfry known as the Leaning Tower. 
This tower was built several hundred years ago by a 
German architect. 

Italy is noted for her marble, and this was used 
centuries ago in the construction of costly palaces 
and in the carving of beautiful statuary. There are 
great marble quarries near Carrara. Marble is ex- 
ported from Leghorn, and some of it is sent to our 
country. Name one of our states from which much 
marble is obtained. 

Hundreds of years ago most of the civilization of 
the world was found along the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. In those days Italy was the center of 
the Roman Empire, which extended from the British 
Isles to Asia Minor. This great empire was ruled 



186 



EUBOPE 




SUNNY ITALY 187 

from Rome on the Tiber River which was then a 
magnificent city. In order that the various parts of 
their empire might be reached as easily as possible, 
the Romans constructed splendid roads over which 
their armies marched. Some of these roads are yet 
in use. 

The Roman Empire passed away centuries ago, 
and the city of Rome has lost much of her glory, yet 
it is to-day one of the most interesting places in the 
world. The center of the city was a great square 
known as the Forum. Monuments, arches, and tem- 
ples of great beauty were located here. The ruins of 
some of these may be seen to-day. 

Near at hand are portions of the walls of the Colos- 
seum, an immense marble structure. It was a cir- 
cular building in which many thousands of people 
could be seated. In the center was a space known 
as the arena. Here men fought with wild beasts, 
and sometimes with one another, while the spectators 
applauded. 

The Church of St. Peter, although commenced be- 
fore Columbus discovered America, is still in use. 
The wonderful dome of this cathedral was designed 
by Michael Angelo. A palace known as the Vatican 
stands beside the church. This is the home of the 
Pope. There are a number of buildings and gardens 
in connection with it. 



188 



miBOPE 




SUNNY ITALY 



189 



East of Rome the Apennines reach their greatest 
height. On the upper part of their western slope the 
rainfall is heavy. As most of the timber was long 




Photo, hy Hoivell. 



Fig. 95. — Arch of Constantine, Rome. 



ago cut from the mountains, the water rapidly runs 
from the slopes after rains. On this account the 
Tiber is sometimes flooded. Because it carries great 
quantities of yellow mud it has been called "Yellow 
Tiber." Much of the mud and sand is deposited in 
the lower course of the river, thus hindering naviga- 
tion. 

As we travel southward the climate grows warmer, 
and fruits and flowers more abundant. We approach 
the ancient city of Naples, which was founded by the 
Greeks, and called Neapolis, meaning the " New City." 



SUNNY ITALY 



191 




192 



EUROPE 



Naples is situated Tipon a beautiful bay, the entrance 
to which is guarded by two volcanic islands — Capri 




Fig. 



Copyright hy Brown Bros. 

Bird's-eye view of Naples and Vesuvius. 



on the north and Ischia on the south. Snow seldom 
falls in Naples, although it is as far north as Chicago, 
and its average temperature is about the same as that 
of Los Angeles, California. 



SUNNY ITALY 



193 



Plainly visible from the city and from the bay rises 
the cone-shaped mountain Vesuvius. This is the only 




Copyright by Brown Bros. 



Fig. 99. — Mt. Etna. 



active volcano on the mainland of Europe. At inter- 
vals for thousands of years it has hurled rocks high 
into the air, and poured out lava, which flowed in 
streams down its slopes. Cities have been buried be- 
neath dust, ash, and mud, and remained hidden for 
hundreds of years. 

As we travel about Naples we see that the streets 
are narrow but straight. They are paved with blocks 
of lava cut from the frozen floods of Vesuvius. Naples 
is the most populous of the Italian cities, and it has 



194 EUROPE 

much industry and commerce. Because of the mild 
climate a good deal of trade is carried on in the open 
air. 

The people of Italy are very fond of macaroni. 
This is made from durum wheat, and as Italy does not 
grow enough wheat to supply 'her needs, much is im- 
ported from the United States. Some of this is sent 
back to us from Naples in the form of macaroni. 

Silk goods, glassware, china, musical instruments, 
artificial flowers, and cut coral are manufactured ex- 
tensively in Naples. Coral reefs and banks are formed 
of the skeletons of the tiny coral polyps which live 
only where the ocean is quite warm. Some kinds of 
coral are of no value, and others are very expensive. 

In Naples there is a very interesting system of milk 
delivery. You may see goats driven through the 
streets by milkmen. Occasionally they halt their 
animals before some house while one of the number 
is milked. The milk is delivered to the customer, and 
the herd is driven on. Sometimes cows are driven 
through the streets for the same purpose. 

The islands of Sicily and Sardinia belong to Italy. 
The Strait of Messina, which in its narrowest part 
is but two miles wide, separates the peninsula from 
Sicily. A ferry for trains connects Reggio on the 
mainland with the city of Messina on the island. 
Sicily is a very ancient land, and it has been in the 



SUNNY ITALY 



195 



possession of the people of many nations. Being sur- 
rounded by water it has a very mild climate. On the 
lowlands oranges, 
lemons, olives, 
bananas, and cot- 
ton are grown. 
Large quantities 
of the first three 
are exported to 
the United States. 

When far out 
at sea, people ap- 
proaching Sicily 
can see the great 
volcano of Etna. 
It is more than 
twice as lofty as 
Vesuvius, yet its 
summit is not 
snow-covered 
during the sum- 
mer. Like Vesu- 
vius, Etna has 
been in eruption 
many times. 

The slopes of 
this volcano are 




Photo. l>y Eowell. 

Fig. 100. — Woman carrying water in 
Sicily. 



196 



EUROPE 



quite gentle, and near its base are many towns and 
villages. Golden oranges gleam among the dark 

green foliage, 
while the 
lighter green of 
the lemon tree 
fails to conceal 
the yellowing 
fruit. The soft 
gray-green of 
the olive 
groves forms a 
pleasing con- 
trast to the 
darker and 
more glossy 
foliage of the 
orange and 
lemon trees. 
Perhaps it 
would surprise 
you to see the 
shiny black 
olives, for most 
of those we see 

Phuto. liy Howell , -i j i i 

-I. ,^, -r. . . -r, 1 on the table are 

JbiG. 101. — Drying macaroni near Palermo, 

Sicily. green. 




SUNNY ITALY 



197 



All over the lower slopes of Etna, beautiful homes 
peep out from behind fruit trees, palms, roses, and 

a wealth of other flowers. 

There are few streams, be- 
cause the cinders and ash 
absorb the water readily. 
The roots of the trees and 
other plants find their way 
to the moisture, however, and 
the warm climate causes a 
luxuriant growth. 

Palermo is the chief city 
of Sicily. It is situated on a 
beautiful bay. Back of the 
city is a fertile plain and be- 
yond this rise mountains. 
Along the water front is a 
magnificent promenade a mile 
or more in length. Here we 
may walk and enjoy the 
wonderful views of sea and 
shore. Below us there is a splendid drive. 

We often see in Sicily two-wheeled carts called 
carretos. They are drawn by donkeys, and are com- 
monly painted yellow. The animals are decorated 
with plumes, and the carts frequently have very 
elaborate pictures upon them. These may represent 



m 


v-.^ 


^ --4'l\^-^* 


^ij- 


imm 





Fig. 102. — Boy in Sardinia. 



198 



EUROPE 



some event in history. The carts are used for carry- 
ing wine, hay, vegetables, charcoal, and sulphur. 

Much sulphur is obtained from Sicily. This is used 
in vulcanizing rubber, in drying fruit, as a medicine, 




Photo, ty Howell. 



Fig. 103. — Public fountain, Sassari, Sardinia. 

and in other ways. Sicily exports much sulphur to 
the United States. 

The Kingdom of Italy, including the islands of 
Sicily and Sardinia, is much smaller than the state of 
California, but its population is more than ten times 
as great. Owing in part to the density of the popula- 
tion, wages are low, and most of the people are poor. 
Italy has an expensive army and navy, and the sup- 
port of these adds to the taxation. 

The farms are often worked on shares, and occa- 
sionally we see oxen yoked to a plow. Homes are 



SUWNY ITALY 199 

generally built around a court. In this there is a 
garden, and sometimes a fountain. This is a delight- 
ful place for the members of the family to gather. 
Stoves are not common in the homes of the poorer 
people. When it is cold, hands and feet are warmed 
by means of an earthenware vessel in which there are 
coals. This is called a scaldino. 

Sardinia and Sicily are nearly equal in area, but 
Sicily has a population about four times as great as 
that of Sardinia. This is in part due to the climate 
of Sardinia, which is very unhealthful. The Romans 
used to punish people by banishing them to this 
island. 

Unlike Italy, Sardinia has rich deposits of minerals. 
Iron, lead, zinc, granite, and marble are abundant. 
Upon the mountain slopes are chestnut groves, while 
on the lower land oranges, figs, olives, and almonds 
are grown. The farmers in Sardinia generally live 
in settlements or villages. It is uncommon to find a 
farmhouse far removed from other dwellings as they 
sometimes are in our country. Great numbers of 
locusts sometimes cross the Mediterranean from north- 
ern Africa, and do great damage to crops. 

The two chief cities of Sardinia are Sassari (sas'- 
sa-ree) and Cagliari (kaVya-re). Sassari is a well- 
built city, having broad streets and some fine public 
buildings. Cagliari, the capital, is situated upon one 



200 



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of the best harbors on the Mediterranean coast. It 
exports grain, flax, silk, cheese, and wine. 

About 200,000 Italians leave their country each 
year to make their homes in the United States. 




Fig. 104. — Cagliari, Sardinia. 



Photo, hy Howell. 



There are thousands of them in each of our great 
cities. The people of our country are different from 
those of other lands, for they are made up of those 
who have come from many parts of the world. The 
Italians, as well as the people from other countries, 
have helped us to develop our land of which we 
are so proud. 



^CHAPTER XYIII 

YENICE 

Cities are much alike. They have great blocks of 
business houses rising like cliffs on either side of a 
narrow canon. They have their shops and factories 
from which clouds of smoke rise. From the streets 
come the steady roar of cars, and the clanging of their 
bells. Heavy carts and drays rumble over the pave- 
ment. Light wagons and cabs rattle noisily along, 
and automobiles fly in all directions. 

What a surprise it would be to go into a city and 
fail to see these vehicles, and fail to hear their noises. 
There is but one city in the world where this is possible. 
That is Venice. Travel upon her streets is almost 
noiseless, for they are paved with water. You know 
how quietly a boat glides over the surface of a stream 
or the lake in the park. In Venice boats take the 
place of cars, wagons, and cabs, and therefore it is a 
very quiet city. 

A little to the northeast of the mouth of the Po, 
the blue waters of the Adriatic wash a group of small 
islands. They are about two and one half miles from 

201 



202 



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the mainland, and number about one hundred. Here 
many centuries ago was built the city of Venice. 
Why did people build a city upon islands? In the 

fifth century the in- 
habitants of this part 
of Italy were being 
plundered and killed 
by their enemies. 
Some of them, in order 
to escape, fled to these 
islands and established 
their homes there. In 
time Venice came to 
be very important. 
In fact, it was a re- 
public, protected by a 
powerful navy. Her 
merchants sent their 
ships to distant lands 
to trade. 

Beside the channels 
or canals which sepa- 
rate the islands the 
Venetians built mod- 
est homes, and hundreds of palaces of marble. Beau- 
tiful churches rose above the water, and stone bridges, 
some of them almost as beautiful as the buildings, 




Photo, by Howell. 

Fig. 105. — A Narrow Canal in 
Venice. 



VENICE 203 

spanned the canals. A great wall of granite was 
built on the seaward side of the city to keep the 
ocean from damaging it. 

Venice is visited each year by a large number of 
people, for of course it is a very interesting city. 
Venice is about as far north as Montreal, and you 
know that Montreal has very cold winters. In Ven- 
ice the climate is so mild that very little snow falls, 
and flowers blossom in the winter. Give the reason 
for this difference in climate. 

A railroad, built upon trestles, takes us from the 
mainland to this island city. On arriving at the 
station we take a boat known as a gondola, instead of 
a cab. The main street of the city is the Grand 
Canal, or, as the Italians call it, the " Canalazzo." 

In order to get a gondola we go to a place where 
they are tied to posts on the bank of the canal. This 
is called a traghetto. Many families own their gondo- 
las, just as families in our country own horses and car- 
riages. Because of this, we see gondolas tied to the 
poles which rise in front of many of the homes. 

The boatmen are called gondoliers. Instead of sit- 
ting in the boat and rowing as we do, the gondolier 
stands upon a little platform near the stern and 
pushes the boat by means of one long oar. You 
observe that our gondola, like all of the others that 
we see, is long, narrow, and black in color. The ends 



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are pointed, and rise four or five feet above the water. 
The front end resembles somewhat the neck of a 
violin. Some of the gondolas have small cabins in 
the center, made by curtaining off a space. 

It is said that several centuries ago the wealthy 
Venetians used to try to outdo one another in the 
beauty of their gondolas. They were of various 







J^^:": "-,p^"? 




"■r*.^.» 



Fig. 106. — The Grand CaEal. 



Photo, hi/ Hou-ell. 



colors, and were carved and decorated in many ways. 
So extravagant did the people become that they were 
finally forbidden by law to have gondolas of any 
other color than black. 

As we glide along the Grand Canal we notice that 
the houses rise directly from the water, and are 
built upon wooden posts or foundations of stone. 
The reflection of the building is often seen in the 



VENICE 



205 



canal. How strange it would seem to us not to have 
a lawn or even a sidewalk in front of the house. 
The steps lead directly from the door to the water. 
As you have already learned, bridges span the canals, 
and narrow passageways called calli lead through 
many of the houses. Of course not every house in 
the city is built directly upon the water, and there are 




Fig. 107. — The horses on St. Mark's. 



Irlwtij. by Howell. 



a very few streets. In one of the palaces the great 
musician Wagner lived, while Byron and Browning 
lived in others. 

St. Mark's square and cathedral are in the center 
of the city. The cathedral has a large number of 
spires and domes. Over one of the doors are four 
bronze horses which have had quite a history. 
Many centuries ago they were in the city of Rome. 



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In the fourth century they were taken to Constan- 
tinople. Nine hundred years later the Venetians 
plundered the city and took them home with them. 
In 1797 the great Napoleon captured them and took 
them to Paris, and in 1815 they were restored to St. 
Mark's. The square in front of the cathedral is the 
home of thousands of pigeons. They are very tame, 
for people are in the habit of feeding them here. 




Fig. 108. — The-Rialto. 



riiuto. by Howell. 



Our ride takes us under the most beautiful of the 
Venetian bridges — the Rialto. It is more than two 
hundred years old. Its single span is 91 feet in 
length and it is as wide as an ordinary street. On 
either side of the Rialto there are shops of various 
kinds, between which is a walk for passengers. 

Before leaving Venice let us travel her great liquid 



VENICE 



207 




Fig. 109. — The Bridge of Sighs. 



Photo, by Howell. 



208 EUROPE 

boulevard by night. The canals, the bridges, the 
palaces, and St. Mark's are bathed in the soft light of 
the full moon. As we gaze back along the canal, the 
lights from the houses and from the many gondo- 
las, as well as the moon and the stars, all gleam both 
above and upon the water. It seems as though the 
whole city is the creation of fairies. To add to our 
pleasure the gondolier sings this old Italian song as 
our boat glides noiselessly along the canal : — 

Santa Lucia 

1. Now 'neatli the silver moon ocean is glowing, 
O'er the calm billows soft winds are blowing. 
Here balmy zephyrs blow, pure joys invite us, 
And as we gently row all things delight ns. 
Hark, how the sailor's cry joyously echoes nigh. 
Santa Lucia ! Santa Lucia ! 

Chorus 
Home of fair poesy, realm of pure harmony, 
Santa Lucia ! Santa Lucia ! 

2. When o'er thy waters light winds are playing. 
Thy spell can sooth us, all care allaying. 

To thee, sweet Napoli, what charms are given. 
Where smiles creation, toil blest by heaven. 
Hark, how the sailor's cry, joyously echoes nigh. 
Santa Lucia! Santa Lucia! 



CHAPTER XIX 

SWITZERLAND: THE WORLd's PLAYGROUND 

Some countries, like some families, entertain many 
visitors. Switzerland, although one of the smallest 
countries in the world, is visited by a very large 
number of people each summer. They pour over the 
Alps from Italy on the south, from France on the 
west, and from Germany on the north. English and 
Americans, and in fact people from all parts of the 
world, are met in every hotel. 

These people do not go to Switzerland in search of 
gold or precious stones, for these are not found in 
that land. They are not seeking to establish homes, 
nor to carry on trades. They travel hundreds and 
thousands of miles simply to enjoy the wonderful 
scenery of this little country. There are lofty 
mountains from whose dazzling snow fields glaciers 
descend toward the green valleys at their feet. There 
are foaming waterfalls, and dashing streams which 
finally calm themselves in lakes as blue as the skies. 
It is because of the beauties of nature that Switzer- 
land has become the playground of the world. 

In order that so many visitors may be accommo- 

p 209 



210 EUROPE 

dated, there must of course be a large number of 
hotels. The cities and villages are well supplied with 
them, and many families take guests into their homes. 
Entertaining tourists is one of the very important 
occupations of the Swiss. The visitors spend many 
millions of dollars in the country every summer. 

Excellent roads have been constructed in order that 
people may visit the points of interest comfortably and 
safely. Formerly most of the traveling was done on 
the splendid carriage roads, but now steam and elec- 
tric lines have been built. Railroads burrow through 
the Alps by means of great tunnels, one of which is 
more than twelve miles in length. 

Trails or paths lead from the roads to the falls, 
glaciers, and mountain peaks. Over these, experienced 
guides conduct people. These guides are strong and 
brave mountaineers who are familiar with every step 
along the way. 

Switzerland is a very mountainous country. In 
the central part is a plateau about one hundred miles 
long, and perhaps fifteen miles in width. Between 
the mountain ranges are small valleys. On the 
border between France and Switzerland is Mont 
Blanc, which means the " White Mountain." To view 
this peak from the Vale of Chamonix (which is just 
over the boundary in France) on a clear day is a 
wonderful sight. About you are the picturesque 



SWITZERLAND: THE WORLD'S PLAYGROUND 211 

homes of the people. On the lower slopes of the 
mountain are the dark green forest trees, while the 
upper part of the mountain is clothed in spotless 
white. The poet Byron said of the mountain : — 




Fig. 110. — Mont Blanc. 



" Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountains ; 
They crowned him long ago, 
On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds, 
With a diadem of snow." 

For a long time no one succeeded in reaching the 
sum.mit of this wonderful peak. In the year 1786 
the famous guide Balmat made the ascent. Since 



212 



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that time many parties have reached the top. The 
trip is by no means without danger, as even in mid- 
summer violent snowstorms occasionally rage upon 
the summit. Then the whirling snowflakes blind 
and benumb the travelers, and sometimes the trail is 
entirely covered. On the dangerous portions of the 
trail the members of the party are fastened together 




Fig. 111. — Mer de Glace. 



rimto. by Howell. 



by means of a rope. When there is a party climbing 
the mountain, the people in the valley are deeply 
interested in them, and their movements are closely 
watched by means of a telescope. 

The Mer de Glace, which means the " Sea of Ice," 
is a glacier which descends from Mont Blanc. It 
winds down its valley like a great frozen river. At 
its lower end is a great tangle of bowlders, pebbles, 



SWITZERLAND : THE WORLD'S PLAYGROUND 213 

sand, and mud left by the melting ice, and by the 
stream which issues from beneath the glacier. The 
surface of the ice is broken by crevasses, ice pinnacles, 
and glacial wells. Some of the crevasses extend for 
hundreds of feet down into the glacier. We catch 
glimpses of beautiful tints of blue and green as we 
cautiously peer into them. From far below comes 
the sound of water gurgling through icy channels. 
Over our shoes we wear short, coarse socks to keep us 
from slipping. Our ice axes are in constant use. 
With these we cut foot rests in the ice, and we also 
use them to pull ourselves up steep places, and to 
steady our steps in coming down. 

In the foot of the Bossons Glacier, which also de- 
scends from Mont Blanc, there is an immense ice tun- 
nel. This has been cut right into the glacier for a 
distance of several hundred feet. Planks have been 
placed upon the icy floor to keep the feet of the trav- 
elers dry. No charge is made for entering this tun- 
nel, but one is expected to " tip " a boy who is in at- 
tendance. A small stream of water runs beside the 
planks, hurrying to get to the sunshine, and join the 
larger stream in the valley. How cold the air is ! 
How the icy walls gleam in the light of the small 
torches ! 

Switzerland has many glaciers, and good views of 
several can be obtained from the electric lines. The 



214 



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Matterhorn, which can be seen towering into the sky 
to the south of Zermatt, is one of the celebrated peaks 
from which ice streams descend. 

A short distance northeast of Mont Blanc, and on 
the boundary between Switzerland and Italy, is the 
Great St. Bernard Pass. For hundreds of years this 
pass has been used extensively. The pass reaches an 




Fig. 112. — TheMatterhorn. 



Plioto. hy Howell. 



altitude of more than eight thousand feet, and snow 
fields and glaciers are all about. In attempting to 
cross the mountains people are sometimes swept away 
by avalanches. 

A very long time ago a house of stone, called a 
hospice, was built here. The word means that trav- 
elers will be fed and sheltered. You see its meaning 
is the same as that of our word hospitality. Monks 



SWITZERLAND: THE WORLD'S PLAYGROUND 215 

live in the hospice and give travelers food and shelter 
without charge. Each guest may place upon a plate 
any sum that it pleases him to leave. 

The monks are assisted in rescuing people from the 
snow by large, powerful, and sagacious dogs. Accom- 
panied by these dogs the monks make trips from the 
hospice down both the Swiss and the Italian sides of the 




Fig. 113. — St. Bernard Hospice. 



Photo. l)y 



mountains. One of the dogs, whose name was Barri, 
died about 100 years ago after having saved the lives 
of more than twenty persons. 

The many snow fields and glaciers of Switzerland 
are not simply objects of interest. They serve a very 
useful purpose as well. You remember that Great 
Britain, Germany, and France have much coal which 
they use in manufacturing. Switzerland does not 



216 



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have coal, but her fields of snow and her glaciers have 
been called " white coal." The melted snow and ice 
supply the streams with water, and as the country is 
so mountainous, much power is thus obtained. Mills 
and factories are operated, and cars are run by water 
and electrical power. You see that in a certain sense 
the snow and ice take the place of coal. Of course 




Photo, by Hotvell. 



Fig. 114. — Dogs used by monks of St. Bernard. 

much coal is purchased from other countries, for the 
streams do not furnish enough power. 

Lake Geneva is a beautiful, crescent-shaped body of 
water about fifty miles long. The Rhone River, which 
has its sources in the snow fields, flows into the east- 
ern end of Lake Geneva on its way to the Mediterra- 
nean Sea. It enters the lake quite white in color be- 
cause of the sediment which it gathers beneath the 



SWITZERLAND : THE WORLD'S PLAYGROUND 217 




218 EUROPE 

glaciers. As you stand upon the bridge which spans 
the river at the west end of the lake, you see that 
the stream is clear and sparkling. This is because 
the river has dropped its sediment in the quiet waters 
of the lake. 

The city of Geneva is situated on both shores of 
the western end of the lake. It is a beautiful and a 
well-kept city. Lofty mountains surround it, and on 
clear days Mont Blanc can be seen. Geneva is quite 
a manufacturing center, and uses power obtained 
from the Rhone. In the shops we see watches, 
jewelry, music-boxes, and scientific instruments made 
in the city. 

A railroad follows the north shore of the lake, which 
is dotted with towns. A steamer carries those who 
wish to travel by water around the lake. Montreux, 
a town on the northeast shore, has a very beautiful sit- 
uation. From the windows of our hotel we can look 
directly down upon the blue waters of the lake, and 
after we have gone to bed we can hear the murmur of 
the waves as they lap against the shore. 

Southeast of Interlaken, which, as the name indi- 
cates, is situated between two lakes, the Jungfrau 
lifts its snowy head nearly 14,000 feet above the 
sea. This is one of the most beautiful of the Swiss 
peaks, and the name means "young wife." Inter- 
laken has from 60,000 to 80,000 visitors each year, 



SWITZERLAND: THE WORLD'S PLAYGROUND 219 

and the Jungfrau is one of the sights which they 
enjoy. 

In the region about Lake Lucerne William Tell is 
said to have performed some of his mighty deeds. 




}'hutu. by Fr. 

Fig. 116. — Tell Monument, Altdorf . 



In those days the Austrians were trying to conquer 
the Swiss people. Gessler, an Austrian official, placed 
a hat upon a pole in the market-place in Altdorf, 
and ordered all Swiss people who passed it to take off 
their hats. William Tell refused to do this, and he 



220 



EITBOPB 




SWITZERLAND: THE WOBLD'S PLAYGROUND 221 

was therefore arrested. The tyrant Gessler, hearing 
that Tell had great skill with the crossbow, ordered 
him to shoot an apple placed upon the head of his 
little son. If he failed to do this, he was to be put 
to death. 

Tell shot the apple, but Gessler discovered that a 
second arrow was concealed under the cloak of the 
brave Swiss. He asked what this was for, and Tell 
told him that had he shot his son, the second arrow 
was for Gessler. The Austrians now bound Tell, and 
placing him in a boat, started across the lake. A 
storm came up, and Tell was released in order that he 
might guide the boat to land. When the boat reached 
the shore, William Tell sprang out and escaped. 

This story may not be true, but the Swiss people 
have erected a monument in Altdorf in remembrance 
of Tell. Beside him stands his son, and over his 
shoulder is his cross-bow. This monument is shown 
in the accompanying picture. 

In the city of Lucerne is the famous lion carved by 
Thorwaldsen. We view it from the edge of a little 
pond overhung by trees. On the farther side of the 
pond rises a wall of solid limestone rock, and out of 
this the lion was carved. The lion is about thirty 
feet in length, and is lying wounded in a niche in the 
rock. The lion represents some brave Swiss soldiers 
who gave up their lives defending Louis XIY of 



222 



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France. Copies of the Lion of Lucerne are carved in 
wood and sold in large numbers to visitors. 

The largest city in Switzerland is Zurich, situated 
on the shore of the lake of the same name. Hills 
surround the lake, and a part of the city is upon 
these. In the older parts of Zurich the streets are 
narrow and crooked. Occasionally we see a dog 




Fig. 118. — Lion of Lucerne. 



Photo, hy Howell. 



drawing a milk cart through the streets. Power is 
developed from the river Limmat and much manufac- 
turing is done. Nearly directly south of the city is 
the great St. Gotthard tunnel. By means of this 
tunnel raw silk from Italy reaches Zurich, where silk 
goods are manufactured quite extensively. 

Berne, the capital of Switzerland, is situated upon 
the Aar River. Many snow-covered peaks are in 



SWITZERLAND: THE WORLD'S PLAYGROUND 223 



plain sight from the city. The buildings are generally 
of stone. You are surprised to find that the second 
stories of the 
houses project 
over the side- 
walks, thus pro- 
tecting people 
from rain and sun- 
shine. One of the 
interesting sights 
in Berne is an old 
clock tower. 

The man who 
founded Berne 
many centuries 
ago is said to have 
killed a bear on 
the spot. As hern 
was the name for 
bear, he decided to 
give the town the 
same name. 

As Switzerland 
is so mountainous, 
much of the land 

is unfit for agriculture. The farms are generally 
small, and much of the work is done by hand. On 




Fig. 119. — The wonderful clock in Berne. 



224 



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steep hillsides we see men cutting grass by means of 
sickles and scythes. When it is dry, it is raked up by 
hand and tied into great round bales. These the 
farmer carries to his barn. We see many women 
working in the fields with their husbands. The 




Fig. 120. — Home of a Swiss peasant. 

mountain sides are used for pasturage, and much 
butter and cheese are made by the Swiss people. 

The houses are generally built of wood. The 
house and the barn are sometimes under one roof. 
In many cases the roof projects several feet beyond 
the walls, and thus furnishes a partial shelter for 



SWlTZEBLANB : THE WORLD'S PLAYGBOXJND 225 

stove wood. We frequently see flat stones on the 
roofs of the houses. These are used in very windy 
districts to hold the shingles in place. 

Much manufacturing is done in Swiss homes, as 
well as in factories. The people are very skillful in 
wood carving and in the making of watches, clocks, 
jewelry, musical and scientific instruments, and cotton 
and silk goods. Switzerland depends almost entirely 
upon the outside world for the raw products which 
she uses in manufacturing, as well as for much of her 
food. Coal, iron, copper, cotton, silk, wheat, meat, 
and sugar are imported in large quantities. The 
exports of Switzerland are manufactured goods. 

In the northern part of the country about three 
fourths of the people speak German, while in the 
west many speak French. Italian is spoken by some 
in the southern part of Switzerland. 

The Swiss are a brave and intelligent people. They 
love their mountain land, which they have defended 
for generations. To-day they do not have to fight to 
maintain their freedom, for the stronger nations of 
Europe have agreed to protect them. Switzerland 
lacks minerals and great grain and cotton fields, but 
Nature bestowed upon her the gift of beauty. For the 
rest and the joy which her beautiful scenery gives, the 
people of other lands will always be willing to pay 
liberally. 



CHAPTER XX 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

In a spring in the Black Forest of Germany rises 
one of the longest rivers in Europe — the Danube. 
It flows eastward across the German Empire and 
Austria. The mountains and plains of Hungary and 
Roumania send their waters to the Danube, and the 
great stream finally empties into the Black Sea. 

The Danube has a large volume of water, for it 
drains a large area, and the melting snows of many 
mountains feed it. In its winding course across the 
plains of Hungary, the river flows six hundred miles. 
These plains are so flat that the Danube is not always 
able to carry off its waters, and therefore floods some- 
times occur. Near its mouth it has many channels, 
and it is building up a great delta. 

While Austria and Hungary are two distinct coun- 
tries, and have separate parliaments, they are under 
the rule of one emperor. The combined area is about 
the same as that of the state of Texas, yet the popu- 
lation is many times as great. Russia is the only 
country in Europe that is larger than Austria-Hungary. 



A US TRIA-H UNGA R Y 



227 



Mountains surround the country, and cover a consider- 
able part of the surface, especially in Austria. 




Fig. 121. — An ox-teairi in Salsburg'. 



Farming is the leading industry. Many women 
work in the fields, and others are employed as regular 
laborers along other lines. For their services on the 
farms they receive but a few cents per day in addition 
to board. There are extensive fields of wheat and 
corn, while rye, oats, hemp, flax, potatoes, and sugar 
beets are common crops. In some of the sheltered 
districts near the Adriatic, olives, oranges, lemons, 
rice, and even cotton are grown. Not so much 



228 



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machinery is used upon the farms as is used in our 
country, but in some sections American farming 
machinery, such as steam-threshers, are employed. 




^^M^^^^^^^'^?^^'''' 



.^>^V;, 




Fig. 122. — Woman shining shoes in Salsburg. 



AUSTBIA-HUNGARY 229 

Very much, of the work is done by hand. Much 
grass and grain are cut by means of the old-fashioned 
scythes. Both men and women use these. In order 
that the grain and hay may dry more quickly, it 
is placed upon stakes driven into the ground. To 
these stakes cross-arms are nailed. Many oxen are 
in use, both on the farms and in the cities. Instead 
of wearing yokes, they pull by means of heavy leather 
bands across their foreheads. 

On the farms many industries are carried on. 
Butter and cheese are made, and meat prepared for 
use. Leather is tanned, and boots, shoes, and har- 
nesses made from it. Flax and wool are produced 
upon the farms, and traveling weavers make cloth and 
clothing for family use. The farmers in our country 
did these things fifty or more years ago. 

The farmhouses are usually built of wood, and 
many of them have thatched roofs. On one side 
there are wide, projecting eaves. Here firewood and 
tools are stored. In pleasant weather this space often 
serves as a sort of meeting place for the family. 
Gatherings are frequently held in the large farm- 
houses, and feasting, music, and dancing are enjoyed. 
In the colder parts of the country the rooms are 
warmed by means of tall white porcelain stoves. 
Some of these stoves are as many as seven feet high. 

As there are so many different races in Austria, 



230 



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the dress of the people, as well as their language 
and customs, varies. The women usually wear short 
skirts and sometimes large aprons of carpet material. 
They have short jackets, ornamented by means of 




Copyright by . 

Fig. 123. — Austrian peasants in gala attire. 



vertical stripes or bands. Upon their heads are large 
colored handkerchiefs, and many of them wear boots 
just as the men do. 

The men wear wide, white trousers, short jackets 
without sleeves, flat black hats, and high-heeled boots. 
You are accustomed to seeing women wear feathers 



AUSTEIA-HUNGABY 231 

in their hats^ but in Austria men often decorate their 
hats with feathers. In Dalmatia, which is along the 
Adriatic coast, the men wear on their heads tiny 
scarlet caps. Both men and women carry over one 
shoulder a bag made of carpet material or of leather. 
Sometimes this is used as we use satchels and suit- 
cases. Sometimes provisions are carried in it. Oc- 
casionally it furnishes a safe, warm nest for a baby. 
Strangest of all, a pig may be carried to market 
in it. 

There are very extensive forests in A u stria-Hun garj^, 
and millions of dollars' worth of wood are exported 
yearly. The country has a forestry service, and the 
forests which it controls yield a much larger profit 
than ours. Austrian forests are chiefly in the hands 
of the government. 

There is much mineral wealth also. Coal, iron, 
lead, copper, mercury, petroleum, sulphur, salt, marble, 
gold, silver, and precious stones are found. The 
mineral springs attract people from all parts of the 
world. Near Cracow are the great salt mines of 
Wieliczka. Here there is a deposit of rock salt 300 
miles long and more than 1000 feet in thickness. 
Until very recently the salt has been mined, and there 
are real villages far below the surface where the salt 
miners and their families live. Now, in some districts, 
water is carried in pipes to the salt beds, and when 



232 EUROPE 

the salt has dissolved, the brine is pumped to the sur- 
face and the water evaporated. 

As you have learned, many different races live in 
the basin of the Danube. This is partly because for 
centuries the river has been followed by people in 
traveling between Europe and Asia. During the 
time of the Crusades many armies marched across the 
country. Some of the most interesting of the many 
people are the gypsies. Thousands of these people 
wander about living a free and easy life. They are 
fond of music and dancing, and many of them are 
fortune tellers. Many of their homes are but huts 
which shelter animals as well as members of the 
family. 

The capital of Austria is Vienna, a large and 
ancient city. It has been in the possession of the 
Romans, Huns, French, and others. The Austrians 
call their capital Wien, for it was built within a mile 
of where the Wien enters the Danube. This was 
because a marsh extended westward from the mouth 
of the Wien and hindered the eastward growth of 
Vienna for centuries. Finally the river was con- 
trolled, and a great park called the Prater now occu- 
pies the former marshes. 

Before the year 1300 a wall encircled Vienna to 
protect it from its enemies. As the city grew, an- 
other wall had to be constructed. As the walls long 



A USTBIA-HUNGAB Y 



233 



ago ceased to be needed, they were torn down, and 
circular streets take their places. The one that en- 
circles the old or " inner city " is called the '^ Ring- 




FiG. 124. — On the Ringstrasse, Vienna. 



Photo, by Howell. 



strasse." This was laid out in 1860, and averages 
150 feet in width. 

Vienna has a splendid water supply which comes 
from the foot of Schneeberg, a lofty peak about 
sixty miles to the southward. The water is carried 



234 



EUBOPE 



the entire distance in a great pipe, and so reaches the 
houses very pure. Several fine bridges span the 

Danube. The city 
is quite a manu- 
facturing center. 
Engines, vehicles, 
tools, leather 
goods, silks, mu- 
sical and scientific 
instruments, are 
made. Vienna is 
one of the great 
musical and art 
centers of the 
world. 

The position of 
Vienna is very im- 
portant, for here 
the Danube flows 
in a low gap be- 
tween the moun- 
tains which cross 
the basin. Thus 
for centuries peo- 
ple in following the valley have passed through the 
city. To-day raihoads center in Vienna for the same 
reason. 




Fig. 125. 



Photo, by Howell. 

Votive Church, Vienna. 



AUSTRIA-HUN GABY 



235 



In the new part of the city the streets are broad 
and clean. To each water-cart a hose about six feet 
in length is attached. At the end of the hose is a 
sprinkler. One end of a short rope is tied to the 
sprinkler, and a man, w^alking behind the cart, holds 
the other end. By means of the rope he swings the 




Fig. 126. — Budapest. 

sprinkler back and forth, thus sprinkling the street. 
Street cars generally run on the sides of the street, 
while carriages and wagons use the center. Signs 
tell how many seats there are in each car, and how 
many passengers may stand upon the platform. It 
is customary to give the conductor a " tip" when you 
pay your fare. This usually amounts to two hellers, 
or about half a cent in American money. 



236 EUROPE 

Farther down the Danube is Budapest, which is 
made up of two cities separated by the river. Buda, 
the older of the two, is located upon terraces that 
rise from the west bank of the river. On a rocky 
hill in the center of the city is an ancient fortress and 
the royal palace. The streets of the city are narrow 
and crooked. 

Pesth is built upon a low, sandy plain made by the 
flood waters of the Danube. It is a bustling, pro- 
gressive city, with wide streets paved with blocks of 
wood or asphalt. Pesth has great stone business 
houses, warehouses, a custom house, and the Hun- 
garian Parliament buildings. Flour, from the wheat 
grown upon the plain, is made here. 

In 1872 the cities were united by means of a sus- 
pension bridge more than 1200 feet long. There are 
now two other bridges and several ferries. The twin 
cities have a population of more than 500,000, only 
one fifth of which is found in Buda. One of the at- 
tractions is a fine boulevard, which extends along 
either bank of the river, and is bordered by acacia 
trees. One of the very interesting things in Budapest 
is a telephone system, by means of which, for $7.31 
per year, subscribers get the news, hear lectures, 
sermons, plays, and concerts. 

At the markets held in some of the smaller cities 
there are many curious sights. The markets at 



A IJ8TBIA-HUNGAET 



237 



Agram are held on Sundays. In the market place 
are long benches where watermelons, fruits, and 
vegetables are displayed. In addition, there are 
glasses of jelly, butter, cheese, chickens, and meat. 
Over each booth there is a large white umbrella, and 
all of the things look clean and tempting. 




Fig. 127. — Spalatro. 



Usually we see a woman in charge of each booth. 
Her husband helps bring the produce from the home, 
but he leaves her to do the rest. Perhaps she under- 
stands how to sell the things better than he does. 

Women do many kinds of work in Austria-Hun- 
gary. We see them employed in brickyards, on 
buildings, on railroads, and in some cases as boot- 
blacks. In the villages the girls and women often 



238 



EUBOPE 



take the washing to the nearest stream. In the 
country Httle girls are frequently seen tending flocks 



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Fig. 128. — Woman spinning in Ragusa. 

of geese. Perhaps there are children in your school 
whose parents left this interesting land to make their 
homes in America. 



A USTEIA-HUNGAE Y 



239 



Austria-Hungary has about 1000 miles of coast line 
along the Adriatic. As you see, there is a system of 
mountains but a short distance from the coast, and as 
the mountains rise quite abruptly, the cost of building 




Photo, by Howell. 



Fig. 129. — Ancient tower on bridge in Prague. 

roads and of transporting goods across them is con- 
siderable. Near the head of the Adriatic are Trieste 
(tre-esf) and Fiume (fe'oo-ma), which are the most 
important ports. Fishing is quite important, and 
Austria-Hungary has furnished a large number of well- 
trained seamen. On the Dalmatian coast are Spalatro 
and Ragusa. Spalatro, as you see, is built upon a 
hillside sloping to the Adriatic. Ragusa is a walled 
city. 

The third city in importance in Austria-Hungary 
is Prague. It is an important manufacturing and 



240 EUROPE 

railroad center. This is because it is situated close 
to deposits of coal, and is on an ancient route of trade 
and travel. Prague is a beautiful city, and because 
of the large number of towers it has been called the 
" town of the hundred towers." 



CHAPTER XXI 



THE BALKAN COUNTRIES 



The Adriatic, the Mediterranean, the ^gean, and 
the Black seas wash the shores of the Balkan Penin- 
sula. The Balkan Mountains extend east and west 
across a part of the peninsula, and there are several 
other ranges. The mountains divide the peninsula 
into many valleys and plateaus. This arrangement 
of surface features favors the existence of separate 
nations. These are known as the Balkan Countries, 

ROUMANIA 

Just east of Austria-Hungary lies the kingdom of 
Koumania. The country is largely a plain sloping 
eastward from the Carpathian Mountains, and is 
drained by the Danube. In the mountains much 
timber as well as salt and petroleum are produced. 
The oil is conveyed to the Black Sea in pipe lines, 
and is exported from a city called Kustanje. 

On the plains agriculture is the leading industry, 
and corn, wheat, flax, grapes, and plums are important 
crops. Roumania ranks next to the United States in 
the exportation of corn. East of the Danube, on the 

K ' 241 



242 EUROPE 

steppes, herding is the chief occupation. Here many 
sheep and cattle are raised. 

The Danube forms most of the boundary between 
Roumania and Bulgaria, and it is an important route 
of trade and travel. For about two months each year 
it is ice-bound, and this lessens its usefulness. When 
within about 75 miles of the Black Sea, the Danube 
turns northward, and flows to the northern boundary 
of Roumania, and then east to the Black Sea. 

Bucharest, the " city of enjoyment," is the capital 
and the railroad center of the country. It has con- 
siderable trade in grain, lumber, salt, and wool. 

BULGARIA 

This country received its name from the Bulgars, 
who about 1000 years ago moved into the country 
from Russia. The Balkan Moimtains extend almost 
east and west across Bulgaria, and this causes a dif- 
ference in climate and products on their north and 
south slopes. Wheat is the chief crop in the Danube 
basin, while on the warmer south slope of the Balkans 
tobacco, silk, grapes, and rice are grown. Many roses 
are grown also, from which attar of roses is manu- 
factured. 

Agriculture is the leading industry, and nearly 
three fourths of the people live on farms. Most of 



THE BALKAN COUNTRIES 



243 



the land is owned by the peasants who till it. There 
are extensive forests in Bulgaria. Manufacturing is 
not much developed, but along the foothills some 
weaving is done by water power. 




'opijjiijiil bij Brou-ii . 



Fig. 130. — Market day in Sofia. A group of Bulgarian peasants with 
their purchases on their shoulders. 

Bulgaria is a little larger than Indiana, and has a 
population of about 4,000,000. The people are in- 
dustrious and peaceable, but do not become acquainted 
with strangers very readily. The women generally 
wear their hair in braids, and their skirts are often 
much decorated. One frequently sees a woman spin- 
ning as she walks along the road. 

Sofia, the capital, is in the western part of the 



244 EUROPE 

country. Woolen, silk^ and leather goods are manu- 
factured. There are many mosques and churches in 
the city. 

Tirnova is an interesting city built on the side 
of a mountain. Some of the streets are so steep 
that they zigzag through the town, with houses on 
the upper side only. The houses, which are com- 
monly from three to five stories in height, are usually 
pink, brown, yellow, or blue, and have red terra 
cotta roofs. Many of the houses have balconies 
upon which oleanders or grapevines grow, and here, 
in pleasant weather, the women sometimes sit. 

Donkeys carry most of the merchandise along the 
narrow streets, although we occasionally see a man 
carrying a water barrel or some other burden on 
his shoulder. These men, and others whom we see, 
usually wear wide trousers, loose jackets^ and caps. 

SERYIA 

The surface of Servia is rugged, and is heavily 
timbered. From the forests comes lumber used in 
the manufacture of staves, and upon the acorns and 
nuts many hogs feed. Sheep and cattle are pastured 
upon the hills, while agriculture is carried on in the 
valleys. In some sections wooden plows are used, 
and the grain is cut with the scythe. Wheat is 



THE BALKAN COUNTRIES 245 

threshed by having cattle trample it under their 
feet. 

Manufacturing is chiefly in the form of household 
industries. Belgrade, the capital and chief commer- 



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Copyright hy Brown Bros. 

Fig. 131. — A frontier post near Rilo, Servia, and an old saw mill. 

cial city, occupies an important position. It is at 
the junction of the Save and the Danube, and close 
to where the Tbiess joins the latter. A railroad 
connecting with Paris crosses the river at this point. 

MONTENEGRO 

Montenegro, which means the " Black Mountain," 
is the smallest kingdom in the world, being smaller 
than the state of Connecticut. The population of 



246 



EUROPE 



the country is only about 300,000, but the people, 
like the Swiss, have an intense love of liberty, and 

the rugged character of 
their land has enabled 
them to maintain their 
independence. 

Every man goes 
armed, ready to fight 
at a moment's notice. 
Because of the danger 
which has constantly 
threatened the people, 
the w^omen do most of 
the work, while the 
men serve as guards. 
In August, 1910, Mon- 
tenegro became a king- 
dom. In the future 
there will be less fight- 
ing, and the people 
will turn their atten- 
tion to the development of their country. 

Because the country is so mountainous, there 
are few roads, and the people live much as they did 
hundreds of years ago. In places the mountains 
rise to an elevation of 6000 to 8000 feet. Upon 
their slopes sheep, cattle, and goats are pastured. 




J-hoto. by Howell. 

Fig. 132. — A Montenegrin. 



THE BALKAN COUNTRIES 



24T 



There are no large cities and there is httle manu- 
facturing in Montenegro. 



TURKEY IN EUROPE 



European Turkey extends entirely across the 
Balkan Peninsula, and therefore has a frontage on 
three seas. Much of the country is mountainous. 











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Fig. 133. — A country scene in Turkey. 

and traveling is difficult, for the roads are few and 
bad. Between the smaller cities that are connected 
by rail there is usually but one train each way 
daily. 

In the valleys wheat, corn, flax, hemp, tobacco, 



248 EUROPE 

grapes, and figs are grown. From the grapes some 
raisins are made. If you were in Turkey, you would 
often see buffalo and oxen drawing wooden plows. 
As in Servia, animals are driven back and forth 
over the harvested grain, in order to thresh it. 

Constantinople is the largest of the cities of Turkey. 
It occupies a very important position, for it guards the 
entrance to the Black Sea. It is built upon the gentle 
slopes of hills at the east end of a promontory which 
projects into the Black Sea. The narrow strait which 
connects this sea and the Sea of Marmora separates 
Europe from Asia. On this spot a city was built more 
than 600 years before the birth of Christ. It was de- 
stroyed, but rebuilt nearly 1000 years later by a Roman 
emperor whose name was Constantine. He made the 
city his capital, and gave it his name, k^ polls means 
city, Constantinople means the city of Constantine. 

Many of the streets are crooked, narrow, and very 
dirty. For hundreds of years large numbers of dogs 
have lived in the streets. These dogs have no owners, 
as dogs in our country have, but the people place food 
and water in the streets for them. They are so nu- 
merous that people often have to walk around them 
as they lie in the streets. The government is now 
considering the question of abolishing them. 

The houses are generally two stories in height, the 
upper story projecting a little. The windows are 



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250 EUROPE 

commonly protected by means of shutters. In many 
of the houses there are no beds such as ours. Cup- 
boards are built against the walls of the bedrooms, 
and in these the bedding is kept during the day. At 
night it is spread upon the floor. 

When you go into a shop to trade, you are usually 
invited to drink coffee. It is not the custom to wrap 
up the articles purchased in the shop. In the streets 
there are many peddlers who display their wares un- 
der umbrella-like awnings. People frequently pur- 
chase cucumbers at the vegetable stands and eat them 
as we would eat a stick of candy. 

In Constantinople, and in other parts of Turkey, 
the people have customs which seem very strange to 
us. Women are not seen upon the streets as com- 
monly as they are in our country, and when they do 
appear, their faces are generally veiled. When a man 
enters a house, he removes his shoes instead of his 
hat, and he sits upon the floor instead of in a chair. 
When a man has gentlemen friends come to dine with 
him, the women of the household do not eat with 
them. Before the meal is served, a servant shows 
the guests to a room where they remove their outer 
garments, and put on a loose robe reaching to the 
feet. After they have finished eating, a basin con- 
taining water and a towel are passed so that all may 
wash their hands. 



THE BALKAN COUNTRIES 



251 



When a Turkish boy goes to school for the first 
time, there is often quite a celebration. He is dressed 
in his finest, and 
rides upon a horse. 
His teacher walks 
backward before 
him, and the chil- 
dren who are to 
be his schoolmates 
come behind. 

GREECE 

The southern 
end of the Balkan 
Peninsula is oc- 
cupied by Greece. 
It is a countr,y of 
many mountain 
ranges and small 
valleys, and there- 
fore in early times 
Greece consisted of 
many political di- 
visions. The coast 
line is very irregu- 
lar, affording many excellent harbors. Islands dot 
the sea between Greece and Asia Minor, and from the 




Fig. 135. 



Photo, by Howell. 

A stream on the island of Corfu. 



252 



EUROPE 



western part of Greece islands point the way to Italy. 
For these reasons, and because the surface is so rugged 
that it discouraged settlement in the interior, the 
ancient Greeks built most of their cities near the sea. 
In fact the people lived upon the water almost as much 




Fig. 136. — Greek peasants. 

as upon the land, and they developed an extensive 
commerce. 

As you see, the Gulf of Corinth extends almost 
across the peninsula of Greece. The Isthmus of 
Corinth, three or four miles in width, joins the north- 
ern and the southern parts of the country. The 
isthmus is pierced by a canal which was finished in 



THE BALKAN COUNTRIES 



253 



1893. This admits the largest ships and saves about 
twenty hours on the trip around the south half of the 
peninsula. 

Greece is a very 
interesting coun- 
try, for it was once 
a center of art, lit- 
erature, and phi- 
losophy. That w^as 
2000 years ago, but 
we still study some 
of the things that 
were written by the 
ancient Greeks. 
As a nation, the 
Greeks of to-day 
are not much given 
to learning. Many 
of those who come 
to America are of 
the lower classes. 

Although Greece 
has had such a won- 
derful history it is 
a small country, be- ^^^' -^^'^• 

ing not quite so large as the state of Maine. 



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The 



climate on the lowlands is mild, in part due to the 



254 EUROPE 

latitude of the country, and in part due to the influence 
of the water by which it is nearly surrounded. The 
summer rainfall is quite light, especially in the east, 
where irrigation is necessary. 

In Thessaly considerable wheat is raised. Olives 
and olive oil, w^ine, tobacco, figs, raw silks, cotton, and 
currants are other products. The currants, which 
take this name from Corinth, are really raisins made 
from small grapes dried. The climate favors the 
drying of the grapes, just as it does in central Cali- 
fornia. 

The currant industry is a very important one in 
Greece, and the city of Corinth is one of the greatest 
currant markets in the world. If you were in the 
part of Greece near Corinth, you would frequently see 
a number of donkeys loaded with baskets of currants 
which they are carrying to market. The little 
donkeys are almost hidden by the large baskets 
which are hung across their backs. The animals are 
driven by men and sometimes by women also. 

The dress of these Greek peasants is quite interest- 
ing. The men commonly wear a skirt-hke garment 
reaching nearly to the knees, and fastened at the 
waist by a belt. Over this a bright-colored jacket is 
worn. A red fez instead of a hat covers the head, and 
fastened at the top of the fez is a blue tassel. 

The raising of sheep and goats is an important in- 



THE BALKAN COUNTRIES 255 

dustry. Owing to the dry summers, pasturage is short, 
and therefore butter is often scarce. On this account 
olive oil is commonly used in place of butter. 

There is considerable mineral wealth, but mining 
is not very important. Silver, lead, zinc, iron, and 
marble are produced in small quantities, but there is 
no coal. Because of this, there is little manufactur- 
ing, although some water power is used in the manu- 
facture of cotton cloth and paper at Piraeus, six miles 
from Athens. The Greeks are seamen and merchants, 
rather than manufacturers or farmers. 

Athens is the capital and the largest city, having 
a population of about 100,000. Its port is Pirasus. 
This city was once the home of celebrated artists, 
poets, and scholars. On a hill called the Acropolis 
are the ruins of once beautiful temples. The Athens 
of to-day has modern streets and buildings, and the 
people dress as do those of w^estern Europe. It is a 
very dusty city, and probably this is one reason why 
there are so many bootblacks. Much of the trade in 
Greece is carried on by means of fairs. The chief 
fair is held at Pharsalos, in Thessaly. 

Not far from the city of Athens, in a place called 
Olympia, the Greeks of long ago met once in four 
years to hold a celebration in honor of their gods. 
A part of the celebration consisted of games of va- 
rious kinds, for the Greeks were noted athletes. The 



256 EUROPE 

Olympian Games, as they are called, were organized 
several hundred years before the birth of Christ. 

When the time for the games approached, heralds 
were sent in all directions to invite the people of the 
various states to take part in them. Each state sent 
its best athletes to defend its honor. Racing, wres- 
tling, boxing, throwing spears, and throwing the discus 
were some of the sports. The victors were crowned 
with wreaths of olive leaves, and were shown great 
honor by their countrymen. 

In time the temples and the many beautiful works 
of art in Olympia were destroyed by people of other 
nations, and the ruins remained buried for hundreds 
of years. In recent years the location of this sacred 
spot of the ancient Greeks was discovered, and many 
art treasures have been unearthed. 

In the very place where the Greeks met for so 
many centuries, the Olympian Games were revived 
in 1906. Athletes from many nations, including our 
own, gathered there. Through the generosity of a 
wealthy Greek a stadium capable of seating 60,000 
persons was built. Here, within sight of the Acropolis 
of Athens, the contests took place much as they did 
2000 years ago. 



INDEX 



Aberdeen, 21. 
Agram, 237. 
Alhambra, 164. 
Amsterdam, 74. 
Antwerp, 62. 
Athens, 255. 
Austria-Hungary, 226 ; 

in, 227 ; dress in, 230 ; 

231. 



agriculture 
minerals in. 



Balkan Countries, 241. 

Barcelona, 158. 

Belgium, 60 ; mining in, 61. 

Belgrade, 245. 

Bergen, 119. 

Berlin, 91. 

Berne, 222. 

Bossons Glacier, 213. 

Bremen, 89. 

British Isles, 9; agriculture in, 11; 

climate of, 10; coal in, 11. 
Brittany, 45. 
Brussels, 65. 
Bucharest, 242. 
Budapest, 236. 
Bulgaria, 242. 

Chamonix, 44. 
Chester, 13. 
Christiania, 118. 
Cologne, 107. 
Constantinople, 248. 
Copenhagen, 111. 
Cordoba, 161. 
Corsica, 48. 

Denmark, 108 ; position of, 109. 
Dover, Strait of, 9. 
Dresden, 96. 



Edinburgh, 22. 
Eiffel Tower, 55. 



Etna, 195. 

Europe, 1 ; climate of, 6. 

Florence, 185. 

France, 36 ; agriculture in, 37 ; silk 

in, 41. 
Frankfurt, 100. 

Geneva, 218. 

Genoa, 183. 

German Empire, 83 ; agriculture in, 
84 ; coal in, 88 ; coast line of, 
83 ; forests in, 86. 

Gibraltar, 166. 

Glasgow, 22. 

Gottenborg, 132. 

Granada, 164. 

Greece, 251 ; climate of, 253 ; cur- 
rants in, 254. 

Greenwich, 34. 

Hague, 82. 

Hamburg, 89. 

Hammerfest, 122. 

Heidelberg, 99. 

Holland, 67; coast of, 67; dikes of, 69. 

Iceland, 112. 

Ireland, 25. 

Italy, 176 ; marble in, 185. 

Jungfrau, 218. 

Kenil worth, 17. 
Kiel Canal, 83. 

Landes, 45. 

Leipzig, 95. 

Lisbon, 172. 

London, 28 ; Tower of, 33. 

Louvre, 53. 

Lucerne, 221 ; Lion of, 221. 



257 



258 



INDEX 



Madrid, 159. 
Marseilles, 40. 
Mer de Glace, 212. 
Milan, 183. 
Mont Blanc, 210. 
Montenegro, 245. 
Moscow, 149. 
Munich, 96. 

Naples, 189. 

Nijni Novgorod, 152. 

Norway, 115; climate in, 117 
dairying in, 125 ; fishing in, 123 
fiords of, 117; lumbering in, 123. 

Notre Dame, 56. 

Olympic Games, 255. 
Oporto, 171. 

Palermo, 197. 

Pantheon, 59. 

Paris, 50. 

Parliament Buildings, 34. 

Passports, 1. 

Peat, 27. 

Pisa, 185. 

Po Valley, 180 

Portugal, 170 ; 

Prague, 239. 

Pyrenees, 155. 



agriculture in, 180. 
agriculture in, 170. 



Rhine, 97. 
Rhone, 38. 
Rialto, 206. 
Rome, 187. 
Rotterdam, 79. 
Rouen, 51. 
Roumania, 241. 
Russia, 138; homes in, 
in, 139. 



141 ; travel 



St. Bernard Pass, 214. 

St. Mark's, 205. 

St. Petersburg, 146. 

Samovar, 144. 

Sardinia, 199. 

Scotland, 20, 

Servia, 244. 

Sicily, 194. 

Simplon Tunnel, 176. 

Sofia, 243. 

Spain, 155 ; climate of, 156 ; olives 

in, 162 ; salt in, 156. 
Stirling, 23. 
Stockholm, 131. 
Stratford, 16. 
Sweden, 128 ; lumbering in, 129 ; 

travel in, 134. 
Switzerland, 209 ; agriculture in, 223. 

Thames, 28. 
Thessaly, 254. 
Tiber, 189. 
Tirnova, 244. 
Toledo, 161. 
Trondhjem, 121. 
Turin 183. 
Turkey in Europe, 247. 

Valencia, 158. 

Venice, 201 ; gondolas in, 203. 

Vesuvius, 193. 

Vienna, 232. 

Wales, 24. 
Warwick, 17. 
Westminster Abbey, 33. 
William Tell, 219. 

Zaandam, 78. 
Zurich, 222. 



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Sufficient detail for narrative style and vivid picturing, making a 
strong appeal to pupils' interest. 

Marginal headings help the pupils to study clearly by points. Facts 
are kept in proper perspective. Tarr and McMurry^s NEW 
GEOGRAPHIES are by far the most teachable. 

New maps and illustrations. The First Book has twenty-three 
colored maps ; the Second Book, forty. The numerous illus- 
trations are artistic, every one is properly related to the text and 
scientifically placed. The line of text is unbroken. 

The books are strongly and attractively bound. 



CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED 



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64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York 
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THE AMERICAN SCHOOL 
READERS 

A Series of Seven Books, adapted to All Grades of the 
Elementary School 

BY 

KATE T. OSWELL 

AND 

CHARLES B. GILBERT 



THE FHIMES is planned to make the beginner in reading acquainted with 
the printed symbols of his familiar vocabulary. It gives in story form a series 
of incidents in the lives of four children, who appear throughout the book, with 
their friends and their pets. The interest in the subject matter is absorbing to 
children and cumulative. The illustrations are all photographs of real children, 
representing the incidents described in the text. 

THE FIRST HEADER follows naturally, both in subject matter and in vo- 
cabulary, the Primer. The children who are the heroes of the incidents de- 
scribed in the Primer appear in the earlier pages of the First Reader, thus 
making easy and natural the transition to the children's lore which occupies the 
remainder of the book. 

THE SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH READERS are collections of 
choice literature suited to the second, third, and fourth grades respectively. 

THE FIFTH READER {nearly ready) is a compilation of choice literary 
wholes for use in the fifth and sixth grades. 

BOOK SIX {nearly ready) is an annotated and carefully edited selection 
of masterpieces suitable for study in the higher grades. 



Primer, 30 cents net. Second Reader, 35 cents net. 

First Reader, 30 cents net. Third Reader, 40 cents net. 

Fourth Reader, 45 cents net. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York 
BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS SAN FRANCISCO 



The Modern English Course 

By Henry P. Emerson, Superintendent of Education, Buffalo, New York, 
and Ida C. Bender, Supervisor of Primary Grades, Buffalo, New York. 

BOOK I — ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN ENGLISH 

Cloth, i2mo, ix + 246 pages, illustrated, 40 cents net 

BOOK n — A PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Cloth, i2mo, xiv + 400 pages, 60 cents net 

These books aim to give the young — 

(i) Ability to express their own thoughts and to understand the thoughts of 
others. 

(2) Clear insight into the structure of the English sentence. 

(3) Effectiveness in the use of language. 

(4) Appreciation of its higher uses in literature. 

The illustrative sentences in both books have been selected with great care 
from standard literature, and they are valuable in themselves for the informa- 
tion or the suggestive thought they contain. 

The definitions are short, clear, concise, and within the comprehension of the 
pupils. As far as definitions are given in Book I they are identical with 
Book II. In general the two books are consistent ; there are no contradictions ; 
they are harmonious in aim, in method, in explanation, and in definition. 

In the Modern English Course the study of grammar is not neglected and 
much attention is given to composition. In both grammar and composition, 
the aim has been to create on the part of the pupils a better appreciation of 
what they read, a larger power of connected thinking, and greater facility in 
expressing their thoughts. 

The study of grammar is made a real help in oral and written composition, 
(i) The explanations are simple, lucid, and easily understood. 

(2) The definitions are short, clear, concise, and within the comprehension 
of the pupil. 

(3) The selections and illustrative sentences are taken from standard 
literature. 

(4) The books contain many exercises designed to correct common errors in 
English. 

(5) They aim to teach the child to think, observe, and see things, and with 
the thinking to express the thought. 

(6) They avoid the diffuseness and vagueness of language books, and yet 
guard against a merely technical presentation of the principles of grammar. 



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ARITHMETIC TEXTS 



PRESTON-STEVENS ARITHMETICS 

By Deforest a. preston 

Principal Public School No. 164, Brooklyn, New York, and 

EDWARD L. STEVENS 

Associate Superintendent of Schools, New York City 

Elementary Arithmetic 

Cloth i2mo xii + 248 pages $.35 net 

Standard Arithmetic 

Cloth i2mo xii + 336 pages $.50 net 

The Elementary Arithmetic is the first book of a series which offers a 
complete course of arithmetic for elementary schools. It is intended for 
use by pupils of the third, fourth, and fifth years, and can be used with 
little or no preparatory development on the part of the teacher. The 
Standard Arithmetic is complete in itself and may be used in many 
schools throughout all the grades. 

THE GILBERT ARITHMETICS 

By C. H. GLEASON 

Principal Summer Avenue School, Newark, N.J., and 

C. B. GILBERT 

In Three Books, each, cloth, i2mo 

Book I — vii +246 pages $.36 net 
Book II — viii-\-2i2 pages $.40 net 
Book III — vi -{■ 268 pages $.45 net 

The Gilbert Arithmetics present the latest results of the study of special- 
ists of the problem of number as related to the learning mind. They are 
logical in that they treat number in an orderly and systematic way. They 
are psychological in that they treat it as a mental product rather than as 
a physical fact. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York 
BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS SAN FRANCISCO 



FEB 29 1912 



>?^ 



'm. 






One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



FEB 



020 657 050 7 






